Metal and ceramic micro-components with ∼10 μm features were fabricated by molding nano-powder-binder mixtures in micro-molds produced from LiGA-formed masters and then sintering to achieve the desired density and properties. The mechanical properties of the metals nickel and 316L stainless steel were measured in tension using miniature dog bone shaped, micro-molded test specimens. The sintering temperature controlled yield stress (YS), the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and the ductility of the nickel with the YS and the UTS decreasing and the ductility increasing with increasing sintering temperature. For the stainless steel, the YS was nearly 400 MPa, UTS was 650 MPa and the ductility was 3%. The mechanical properties of aluminum oxide ceramics were determined using 4-point bending on miniature micro-molded bend bars. The average modulus of rupture (MOR) was 260 MPa. Careful measurements were made of the dimensional tolerance of the micro-molded parts both before and after sintering using automated optical metrology. The variability in the dimensions of a sintered SS gear after sintering was <3 μm. Finally microscopic examination of the micromolded components indicated that the final grain size was generally less than 1 μm with minimal residual porosity.
Efficient and environmentally sound methods of producing hydrogen are of great importance to the US as it progresses toward the H2 economy. Current studies are investigating the use of high temperature systems driven by nuclear and/or solar energy to drive thermochemical cycles for H2 production. These processes are advantageous since they do not produce greenhouse gas emissions that are a result of hydrogen production from electrolysis or hydrocarbon reformation. Double-substituted perovskites, A1-xSrxCo1-yBy O3-δ (A = Y, La; B = Fe, Ni, Cr, Mn) were synthesized for use as ceramic high-temperature oxygen separation membranes. The materials have promising oxygen sorption properties and were structurally robust under varying temperatures and atmospheres. Post-TGA powder diffraction patterns revealed no structural changes after the temperature and gas treatments, demonstrating the robustness of the material. The most promising material was the La0.1Sr0.9Co1-xMnx O3-δ perovskite. The oxygen sorption properties increased with increasing Mn doping.
All ceramics and powder metals, including the ceramics components that Sandia uses in critical weapons components such as PZT voltage bars and current stacks, multi-layer ceramic MET's, ahmindmolybdenum & alumina cermets, and ZnO varistors, are manufactured by sintering. Sintering is a critical, possibly the most important, processing step during manufacturing of ceramics. The microstructural evolution, the macroscopic shrinkage, and shape distortions during sintering will control the engineering performance of the resulting ceramic component. Yet, modeling and prediction of sintering behavior is in its infancy, lagging far behind the other manufacturing models, such as powder synthesis and powder compaction models, and behind models that predict engineering properties and reliability. In this project, we developed a model that was capable of simulating microstructural evolution during sintering, providing constitutive equations for macroscale simulation of shrinkage and distortion during sintering. And we developed macroscale sintering simulation capability in JAS3D. The mesoscale model can simulate microstructural evolution in a complex powder compact of hundreds or even thousands of particles of arbitrary shape and size by 1. curvature-driven grain growth, 2. pore migration and coalescence by surface diffusion, 3. vacancy formation, grain boundary diffusion and annihilation. This model was validated by comparing predictions of the simulation to analytical predictions for simple geometries. The model was then used to simulate sintering in complex powder compacts. Sintering stress and materials viscous module were obtained from the simulations. These constitutive equations were then used by macroscopic simulations for simulating shrinkage and shape changes in FEM simulations. The continuum theory of sintering embodied in the constitutive description of Skorohod and Olevsky was combined with results from microstructure evolution simulations to model shrinkage and deformation during. The continuum portion is based on a finite element formulation that allows 3D components to be modeled using SNL's nonlinear large-deformation finite element code, JAS3D. This tool provides a capability to model sintering of complex three-dimensional components. The model was verified by comparing to simulations results published in the literature. The model was validated using experimental results from various laboratory experiments performed by Garino. In addition, the mesoscale simulations were used to study anisotropic shrinkage in aligned, elongated powder compacts. Anisotropic shrinkage occurred in all compacts with aligned, elongated particles. However, the direction of higher shrinkage was in some cases along the direction of elongation and in other cases in the perpendicular direction depending on the details of the powder compact. In compacts of simple-packed, mono-sized, elongated particles, shrinkage was higher in the direction of elongation. In compacts of close-packed, mono-sized, elongated particles and of elongated particles with a size and shape distribution, the shrinkage was lower in the direction of elongation. We also explored the concept of a sintering stress tensor rather than the traditional sintering stress scalar concept for the case of anisotropic shrinkage. A thermodynamic treatment of this is presented. A method to calculate the sintering stress tensor is also presented. A user-friendly code that can simulate microstructural evolution during sintering in 2D and in 3D was developed. This code can run on most UNIX platforms and has a motif-based GUI. The microstructural evolution is shown as the code is running and many of the microstructural features, such as grain size, pore size, the average grain boundary length (in 2D) and area (in 3D), etc. are measured and recorded as a function of time. The overall density as the function of time is also recorded.
Sintering is one of the oldest processes used by man to manufacture materials dating as far back as 12,000 BC. While it is an ancient process, it is also necessary for many modern technologies such a multilayered ceramic packages, wireless communication devices, and many others. The process consists of thermally treating a powder or compact at a temperature below the melting point of the main constituent, for the purpose of increasing its strength by bonding together of the particles. During sintering, the individual particles bond, the pore space between particles is eliminated, the resulting component can shrinks by as much as 30 to 50% by volume, and it can distort its shape tremendously. Being able to control and predict the shrinkage and shape distortions during sintering has been the goal of much research in material science. And it has been achieved to varying degrees by many. The object of this project was to develop models that could simulate sintering at the mesoscale and at the macroscale to more accurately predict the overall shrinkage and shape distortions in engineering components. The mesoscale model simulates microstructural evolution during sintering by modeling grain growth, pore migration and coarsening, and vacancy formation, diffusion and annihilation. In addition to studying microstructure, these simulation can be used to generate the constitutive equations describing shrinkage and deformation during sintering. These constitutive equations are used by continuum finite element simulations to predict the overall shrinkage and shape distortions of a sintering crystalline powder compact. Both models will be presented. Application of these models to study sintering will be demonstrated and discussed. Finally, the limitations of these models will be reviewed.
The use of oxidized metal powders in mechanical shock or crush safety enhancers in nuclear weapons has been investigated. The functioning of these devices is based on the remarkable electrical behavior of compacts of certain oxidized metal powders when subjected to compressive stress. For example, the low voltage resistivity of a compact of oxidized tantalum powder was found to decrease by over six orders of magnitude during compaction between 1 MPa, where the thin, insulating oxide coatings on the particles are intact, to 10 MPa, where the oxide coatings have broken down along a chain of particles spanning the electrodes. In this work, the behavior of tantalum and aluminum powders was investigated. The low voltage resistivity during compaction of powders oxidized under various conditions was measured and compared. In addition, the resistivity at higher voltages and the dielectric breakdown strength during compaction were also measured. A key finding was that significant changes in the electrical properties persist after the removal of the stress so that a mechanical shock enhancer is feasible. This was verified by preliminary shock experiments. Finally, conceptual designs for both types of enhancers are presented.
An integrated approach, combining the continuum theory of sintering and Potts model based mesostructure evolution analysis, is used to solve the problem of bi-layered structure sintering. Two types of bi-layered structures are considered: layers of the same material with different initial porosity, and layers of two different materials. The effective sintering stress for the bi-layer powder sintering is derived, both at the meso- and the macroscopic levels. Macroscopic shape distortions and spatial distributions of porosity are determined as functions of the dimensionless specific time of sintering. The effect of the thickness of the layers on shrinkage, warpage, and pore-grain structure is studied. Ceramic ZnO powders are employed as a model experimental system to assess the model predictions.
A microfabrication process is described that provides for the batch realization of miniature rare earth based permanent magnets. Prismatic geometry with features as small as 5 microns, thicknesses up through several hundred microns and with submicron tolerances may be accommodated. The processing is based on a molding technique using deep x-ray lithography as a means to generate high aspect-ratio precision molds from PMMA (poly methyl methacrylate) used as an x-ray photoresist. Subsequent molding of rare-earth permanent magnet (REPM) powder combined with a thermosetting plastic binder may take place directly in the PMMA mold. Further approaches generate an alumina form replicated from the PMMA mold that becomes an intermediate mold for pressing higher density REPM material and allows for higher process temperatures. Maximum energy products of 3--8 MGOe (Mega Gauss Oersted, 1 MGOe = 100/4{pi} kJ/m{sup 3}) are obtained for bonded isotropic forms of REPM with dimensions on the scale of 100 microns and up to 23 MGOe for more dense anisotropic REPM material using higher temperature processing. The utility of miniature precision REPMs is revealed by the demonstration of a miniature multipole brushless DC motor that possesses a pole-anisotropic rotor with dimensions that would otherwise prohibit multipole magnetization using a multipole magnetizing fixture at this scale. Subsequent multipole assembly also leads to miniaturized Halbach arrays, efficient magnetic microactuators, and mechanical spring-like elements which can offset miniaturized mechanical scaling behavior.