Polymer foams are used as encapsulants to provide mechanical, electrical, and thermal isolation for engineered systems. In fire environments, the incident heat flux to a system or structure can cause foams to decompose. Commonly used foams, such as polyurethanes, often liquefy and flow during decomposition, and evolved gases can cause pressurization and ultimately failure of sealed containers. In systems safety and hazard analyses, numerical models are used to predict heat transfer to encapsulated objects or through structures. The thermo-mechanical response of systems involving coupled foam decomposition, liquefaction, and flow can be difficult to predict. Predicting pressurization of sealed systems is particularly challenging. To mitigate the issues caused by liquefaction and flow, hybrid polyurethane cyanate ester foams have been developed that have good adhesion and mechanical properties similar to currently used polyurethane and epoxy foams. The hybrid foam decomposes predictably during decomposition. It forms approximately 50 percent by weight char during decomposition in nitrogen. The foam does not liquefy. The charring nature of the hybrid foam has several advantages with respect to modeling heat transfer and pressurization. Those advantages are illustrated by results from recent radiant heat transfer experiments involving encapsulated objects, as well as results from numerical simulations of those experiments.
Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) is evaluating the potential of an innovative approach for splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using two-step thermochemical cycles. Thermochemical cycles are heat engines that utilize high-temperature heat to produce chemical work. Like their mechanical work-producing counterparts, their efficiency depends on operating temperature and on the irreversibility of their internal processes. With this in mind, we have invented innovative design concepts for two-step solar-driven thermochemical heat engines based on iron oxide and iron oxide mixed with other metal oxides (ferrites). The design concepts utilize two sets of moving beds of ferrite reactant material in close proximity and moving in opposite directions to overcome a major impediment to achieving high efficiency--thermal recuperation between solids in efficient counter-current arrangements. They also provide inherent separation of the product hydrogen and oxygen and are an excellent match with high-concentration solar flux. However, they also impose unique requirements on the ferrite reactants and materials of construction as well as an understanding of the chemical and cycle thermodynamics. In this report the Counter-Rotating-Ring Receiver/Reactor/Recuperator (CR5) solar thermochemical heat engine and its basic operating principals are described. Preliminary thermal efficiency estimates are presented and discussed. Our ferrite reactant material development activities, thermodynamic studies, test results, and prototype hardware development are also presented.