Publications

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We describe a Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) effort to develop and apply laser-based thermometry diagnostics for obtaining spatially resolved temperature maps on working microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). The goal of the effort was to cultivate diagnostic approaches that could adequately resolve the extremely fine MEMS device features, required no modifications to MEMS device design, and which did not perturb the delicate operation of these extremely small devices. Two optical diagnostics were used in this study: microscale Raman spectroscopy and microscale thermoreflectance. Both methods use a low-energy, nonperturbing probe laser beam, whose arbitrary wavelength can be selected for a diffraction-limited focus that meets the need for micron-scale spatial resolution. Raman is exploited most frequently, as this technique provides a simple and unambiguous measure of the absolute device temperature for most any MEMS semiconductor or insulator material under steady state operation. Temperatures are obtained from the spectral position and width of readily isolated peaks in the measured Raman spectra with a maximum uncertainty near {+-}10 K and a spatial resolution of about 1 micron. Application of the Raman technique is demonstrated for V-shaped and flexure-style polycrystalline silicon electrothermal actuators, and for a GaN high-electron-mobility transistor. The potential of the Raman technique for simultaneous measurement of temperature and in-plane stress in silicon MEMS is also demonstrated and future Raman-variant diagnostics for ultra spatio-temporal resolution probing are discussed. Microscale thermoreflectance has been developed as a complement for the primary Raman diagnostic. Thermoreflectance exploits the small-but-measurable temperature dependence of surface optical reflectivity for diagnostic purposes. The temperature-dependent reflectance behavior of bulk silicon, SUMMiT-V polycrystalline silicon films and metal surfaces is presented. The results for bulk silicon are applied to silicon-on-insulator (SOI) fabricated actuators, where measured temperatures with a maximum uncertainty near {+-}9 K, and 0.75-micron inplane spatial resolution, are achieved for the reflectance-based measurements. Reflectance-based temperatures are found to be in good agreement with Raman-measured temperatures from the same device.

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In this paper, we report spatially resolved temperature profiles along the legs of working V-shaped electrothermal (ET) actuators using a surface Raman scattering technique. The Raman probe provides nonperturbing optical data with a spatial resolution of 1.2 μm, which is required to observe the 3-μm-wide actuator beams. A detailed uncertainty analysis reveals that our Raman thermometry of polycrystalline silicon is performed with fidelity of ±10 to 11 K when the peak location of the Stokes-shifted optical phonon signature is used as an indicator of temperature. This level of uncertainty is sufficient for temperature mapping of many working thermal MEMS devices which exhibit characteristic temperature differences of several hundred Kelvins. To our knowledge, these are the first quantitative and spatially resolved temperature data available for thermal actuator structures. This new temperature data set can be used for validation of actuator thermal design models and these new results are compared with finite-difference simulations of actuator thermal performance. © 2006 IEEE.

The response of microsystem components to laser irradiation is relevant to the use of laser processing, optical diagnostics, and optical microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) device design and performance. The dimensions of MEMS are on the same order as infrared laser wavelengths which results in interference phenomena when the parts are partially transparent. Four distinct polycrystalline structures were designed and irradiated with 808 nm laser light to determine the effect of layers and the presence of a substrate via on the laser power threshold for damage. The presence of a substrate via resulted in lower damage thresholds, and interference phenomena resulted in a single layer structure having the highest damage threshold.

Microsystems are potentially exposed to laser irradiation during processing, diagnostic measurements, and, in some cases, device operation. The behavior of the components in an optical MEMS device that are irradiated by a laser needs to be optimized for reliable operation. Utilizing numerical simulations facilitates design and optimization. This paper reports on experimental and numerical investigations of the thermomechanical response of polycrystalline silicon microcantilevers that are 250 {micro}m wide, 500 {micro}m long, and 2.25 {micro}m thick when heated by an 808 nm laser. At laser powers above 400 mW significant deflection is observed during the laser pulse using a white light interferometer. Permanent deformation is detected at laser powers above 650 mW in the experiments. Numerical calculations using a coupled physics finite element code, Calagio, agree qualitatively with the experimental results. Both the experimental and numerical results reveal that the initial stress state is very significant. Microcantilevers deflect in the direction of their initial deformation upon irradiation with a laser.

Interfacial adhesion is an important factor in determining the performance and reliability of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Van der Waals dispersion forces are the dominant adhesion mechanism in the low relative humidity (RH) regime. At small roughness values, adhesion is mainly due to van der Waals dispersion forces acting across extensive non-contacting areas and is related to 1/Dave2, where Dave is the average surface separation. These contributions must be considered due to the close proximity of the surfaces, which is a result of the planar deposition technology. At large roughness values, van der Waals forces at contacting asperities become the dominating contributor to the adhesion. Capillary condensation of water has a significant effect on rough surface adhesion in the moderate to high RH regime. Above a threshold RH, which is a function of the surface roughness, the adhesion jumps due to meniscus formation at the interface and increases rapidly towards the upper limit of Γ=2γcosθ=44 mJ/m2, where γis the liquid surface energy and θis the contact angle. Copyright © 2006 by ASME.

Optical actuation is a necessity for the development of all-optical MEMS devices. Optically-powered actuators relying on a photothermal process are limited by overheating and structural damage resulting from the absorption of laser power. Surface micromachined polycrystalline silicon (polysilicon) optical actuators, powered using an 808 nm continuous wave laser, were evaluated for displacement performance and susceptibility to damage. The tested actuators were of a flexure-type design fabricated from either a single 2.25 μm polysilicon layer or a 4.5 μm polysilicon laminate layer, and in three different designs. Displacement of the actuators was linear with power for all tested designs for powers below those that cause damage to the irradiated surface. Maximum displacement observed was in the 7-9 μm range regardless of actuator design. After surface damage is initiated, displacement of the actuator during irradiation recedes in all actuators, with actuators with a 50 μm-wide target surface exhibiting complete recession in their displacement. The return position of the actuators after the irradiated surface has damaged also exhibits recession on the order of 4-5 μm for surfaces damaged with up to 650 mW. Exposing the actuator surfaces to longer irradiation times had no effect on the displacement if the surface had no damage, but resulted in regression of the displacement as the irradiation time increased if the surface had preexisting damage. Copyright © 2006 by ASME.

Optical microswitches are being developed for use in communication and security systems because of their small size and fast response time. However, as the intensity of the light incident on the microswitches increases, the thermal and mechanical responses of the reflective surfaces are becoming a concern. It is important to dissipate heat adequately and to minimize any deformation on the reflective surfaces. To understand the mechanical responses of these microswitches, a set of microstructures have been fabricated and tested to evaluate how the surfaces deform when irradiated with a high-intensity laser beam. To evaluate and further investigate the experimental findings, the coupled physical analysis tool, Calagio, has been applied to simulate the mechanical behavior of these test structures when they are optically heated. Code prediction of the surface displacement will be compared against measurement. Our main objective is to assess the existing material models and our code predictive capability so that it will be used to qualify the performance of microswitches being developed.

Experimentally measured temperature profiles along the micron-scale beam of a working thermal actuator are reported for the first time. Using a surface Raman scattering technique, temperature measurements are obtained in a noncontact fashion with submicron spatial resolution and to within an uncertainty of better than ± 10 K. The experimental data are used to validate computational predictions of the actuator thermal performance with reasonable agreement between the data and predicted temperatures. Copyright © 2005 by ASME.

Optical actuation of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) is advantageous for applications for which electrical isolation is desired. Thirty-two polycrystalline silicon opto-thermal actuators, optically-powered MEMS thermal actuators, were designed, fabricated, and tested. The design of the opto-thermal actuators consists of a target for laser illumination suspended between angled legs that expand when heated, providing the displacement and force output. While the amount of displacement observed for the opto-thermal actuators was fairly uniform for the actuators, the amount of damage resulting from the laser heating ranged from essentially no damage to significant amounts of damage on the target. The likelihood of damage depended on the target design with two of the four target designs being more susceptible to damage. Failure analysis of damaged targets revealed the extent and depth of the damage.

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Optical MEMS devices are commonly interfaced with lasers for communication, switching, or imaging applications. Dissipation of the absorbed energy in such devices is often limited by dimensional constraints which may lead to overheating and damage of the component. Surface micromachined, optically powered thermal actuators fabricated from two 2.25 μm thick polycrystalline silicon layers were irradiated with 808 nm continuous wave laser light with a 100 μm diameter spot under increasing power levels to assess their resistance to laser-induced damage. Damage occurred immediately after laser irradiation at laser powers above 275 mW and 295 mW for 150 urn diameter circular and 194 urn by 150 μm oval targets, respectively. At laser powers below these thresholds, the exposure time required to damage the actuators increased linearly and steeply as the incident laser power decreased. Increasing the area of the connections between the two polycrystalline silicon layers of the actuator target decreases the extent of the laser damage. Additionally, an optical thermal actuator target with 15 μm × 15 μm posts withstood 326 mW for over 16 minutes without exhibiting damage to the surface. Copyright © 2005 by ASME.

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