Publications

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Low temperature transport properties of high mobility two-dimensional electron systems placed in a weak perpendicular magnetic field can be modified dramatically by microwave or dc electric fields. This paper surveys recent experimental developments which include zero-differential resistance states, Hall field-induced resistance oscillations in tilted magnetic fields, nonlinear response of the Shubnikov-de Haas Oscillations, and a novel microwave photoconductivity peak near the second harmonic of the cyclotron resonance.

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The mid-infrared (mid-IR, 3 {micro}m -12 {micro}m) is a highly desirable spectral range for imaging and environmental sensing. We propose to develop a new class of mid-IR devices, based on plasmonic and metamaterial concepts, that are dynamically controlled by tunable semiconductor plasma resonances. It is well known that any material resonance (phonons, excitons, electron plasma) impacts dielectric properties; our primary challenge is to implement the tuning of a semiconductor plasma resonance with a voltage bias. We have demonstrated passive tuning of both plasmonic and metamaterial structures in the mid-IR using semiconductors plasmas. In the mid-IR, semiconductor carrier densities on the order of 5E17cm{sup -3} to 2E18cm{sup -3} are desirable for tuning effects. Gate control of carrier densities at the high end of this range is at or near the limit of what has been demonstrated in literature for transistor style devices. Combined with the fact that we are exploiting the optical properties of the device layers, rather than electrical, we are entering into interesting territory that has not been significantly explored to date.

THz quantum cascade lasers are of interest for use as solid-state local-oscillators in THz heterodyne receiver systems, especially for frequencies exceeding 2 THz and for use with non-cryogenic mixers which require mW power levels. Among other criteria, to be a good local oscillator, the laser must have a narrow linewidth and excellent frequency stability. Recent phase locking measurements of THz QCLs to high harmonics of microwave frequency reference sources as high as 2.7 THz demonstrate that the linewidth and frequency stability of QCLs can be more than adequate. Most reported THz receivers employing QCLs have used discrete source and detector components coupled via mechanically aligned free-space quasioptics. Unfortunately, retroreflections of the laser off of the detecting element can lead to deleterious feedback effects. Using a monolithically integrated transceiver with a Schottky diode monolithically integrated into a THz QCL, we have begun to explore the sensitivity of the laser performance to feedback due to retroreflections of the THz laser radiation. The transceiver allows us to monitor the beat frequency between internal Fabry-Perot modes of the QCL or between a QCL mode and external radiation incident on the transceiver. When some of the power from a free running Fabry-Perot type QCL is retroreflected with quasi-static optics we observe frequency pulling, mode splitting and chaos. Given the lack of calibrated frequency sources with sufficient stability and power to phase lock a QCL above a couple THz, attempts have been made to lock the absolute laser frequency by locking the beat frequency of a multimoded laser. We have phase locked the beat frequency between Fabry-Perot modes to an {approx}13 GHz microwave reference source with a linewidth less than 1 Hz, but did not see any improvment in stability of the absolute frequency of the laser. In this case, when some laser power is retroreflected back into the laser, the absolute frequency can be pulled significantly as a function of the external path length.

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A low-temperature upturn of the Coulomb drag resistivity {rho}{sub D} measured in undoped electron-hole bilayer devices, possibly manifesting from formation of a superfluid condensate or density modulated state, was recently observed. Here the effects of perpendicular and parallel magnetic fields on the drag upturn are examined. Measurements of {rho}{sub D} and drive layer resistivity {rho}{sub xx-e} as a function of temperature and magnetic field in two uEHBL devices are presented. In B{sub {perpendicular}}, the drag upturn was enhanced as the field increased up to roughly .2 T, beyond which oscillations in {rho}{sub D} and {rho}{sub xx-e}, reflecting Landau level formation, begin appearing. A small phase offset between those oscillations, which decreased at higher fields and temperatures, was also observed. In B{sub {parallel}}, the drag upturn magnitude diminished as the field increased. Above the upturn regime, both {rho}{sub D} and {rho}{sub xx-e} were enhanced by B{sub {parallel}}, the latter via decreased screening of the uniform background impurities.

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Resonant plasmonic detectors are potentially important for terahertz (THz) spectroscopic imaging. We have fabricated and characterized antenna coupled detectors that integrate a broad-band antenna, which improves coupling of THz radiation. The vertex of the antenna contains the tuning gates and the bolometric barrier gate. Incident THz radiation may excite 2D plasmons with wave-vectors defined by either a periodic grating gate or a plasmonic cavity determined by ohmic contacts and gate terminals. The latter approach of exciting plasmons in a cavity defined by a short micron-scale channel appears most promising. With this short-channel geometry, we have observed multiple harmonics of THz plasmons. At 20 K with detector bias optimized we report responsivity on resonance of 2.5 kV/W and an NEP of 5 x 10{sup -10} W/Hz{sup 1/2}.

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LDRD Project 139363 supported experiments to quantify the performance characteristics of monolithically integrated Schottky diode + quantum cascade laser (QCL) heterodyne mixers at terahertz (THz) frequencies. These integrated mixers are the first all-semiconductor THz devices to successfully incorporate a rectifying diode directly into the optical waveguide of a QCL, obviating the conventional optical coupling between a THz local oscillator and rectifier in a heterodyne mixer system. This integrated mixer was shown to function as a true heterodyne receiver of an externally received THz signal, a breakthrough which may lead to more widespread acceptance of this new THz technology paradigm. In addition, questions about QCL mode shifting in response to temperature, bias, and external feedback, and to what extent internal frequency locking can improve stability have been answered under this project.

Ultrafast electronic switches fabricated from defective material have been used for several decades in order to produce picosecond electrical transients and TeraHertz radiation. Due to the ultrashort recombination time in the photoconductor materials used, these switches are inefficient and are ultimately limited by the amount of optical power that can be applied to the switch before self-destruction. The goal of this work is to create ultrafast (sub-picosecond response) photoconductive switches on GaAs that are enhanced through plasmonic coupling structures. Here, the plasmonic coupler primarily plays the role of being a radiation condenser which will cause carriers to be generated adjacent to metallic electrodes where they can more efficiently be collected.

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We have investigated the physics of Bloch oscillations (BO) of electrons, engineered in high mobility quantum wells patterned into lateral periodic arrays of nanostructures, i.e. two-dimensional (2D) quantum dot superlattices (QDSLs). A BO occurs when an electron moves out of the Brillouin zone (BZ) in response to a DC electric field, passing back into the BZ on the opposite side. This results in quantum oscillations of the electron--i.e., a high frequency AC current in response to a DC voltage. Thus, engineering a BO will yield continuously electrically tunable high-frequency sources (and detectors) for sensor applications, and be a physics tour-de-force. More than a decade ago, Bloch oscillation (BO) was observed in a quantum well superlattice (QWSL) in short-pulse optical experiments. However, its potential as electrically biased high frequency source and detector so far has not been realized. This is partially due to fast damping of BO in QWSLs. In this project, we have investigated the possibility of improving the stability of BO by fabricating lateral superlattices of periodic coupled nanostructures, such as metal grid, quantum (anti)dots arrays, in high quality GaAs/Al{sub x}Ga{sub 1-x}As heterostructures. In these nanostructures, the lateral quantum confinement has been shown theoretically to suppress the optical-phonon scattering, believed to be the main mechanism for fast damping of BO in QWSLs. Over the last three years, we have made great progress toward demonstrating Bloch oscillations in QDSLs. In the first two years of this project, we studied the negative differential conductance and the Bloch radiation induced edge-magnetoplasmon resonance. Recently, in collaboration with Prof. Kono's group at Rice University, we investigated the time-domain THz magneto-spectroscopy measurements in QDSLs and two-dimensional electron systems. A surprising DC electrical field induced THz phase flip was observed. More measurements are planned to investigate this phenomenon. In addition to their potential device applications, periodic arrays of nanostructures have also exhibited interesting quantum phenomena, such as a possible transition from a quantum Hall ferromagnetic state to a quantum Hall spin glass state. It is our belief that this project has generated and will continue to make important impacts in basic science as well as in novel solid-state, high frequency electronic device applications.

The purpose of this work was to create a THz component set and understanding to aid in the rapid analysis of transient events. This includes the development of fast, tunable, THz detectors, along with filter components for use with standard detectors and accompanying models to simulate detonation signatures. The signature effort was crucial in order to know the spectral range to target for detection. Our approach for frequency agile detection was to utilize plasmons in the channel of a specially designed field-effect transistor called the grating-gate detector. Grating-gate detectors exhibit narrow-linewidth, broad spectral tunability through application of a gate bias, and no angular dependence in their photoresponse. As such, if suitable sensitivity can be attained, they are viable candidates for Terahertz multi-spectral focal plane arrays.

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We report the details of design and fabrication of independently contacted, vertically coupled quantum wires using the epoxy-bond-and-stop-etch (EBASE) technique. These nanostructures are fabricated in high quality GaAs/AlGaAs parallel double quantum well heterostructures and are intended for Coulomb drag measurements of quantum wires. They will allow us to explore Coulomb drag in one-dimensional structures in a regime of small interlayer separation where the drag signal is expected to be stronger and less affected by phonon drag. © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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Split grating-gate field effect transistors (FETs) detectors made from high mobility quantum well two-dimensional electron gas material have been shown to exhibit greatly improved tunable resonant photoresponse compared to single grating-gate detectors due to the formation of a 'diode-like' element by the split-gate structure. These detectors are relatively large for FETs (1mm × 1mm area or larger) to match typical focused THz beam spot sizes. In the case where the focused THz spot size is smaller than the detector area, we have found evidence, through positional scanning of the detector element, that only a small portion of the detector is active. To further investigate this situation, detectors with the same channel width (1mm), but various channel lengths, were fabricated and tested. The results indicate that indeed, only a small portion of the split grating gated FET is active. This finding opens up the possibility for further enhancement of detector sensitivity by increasing the active area.

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We review recent work where we have investigated the non-linear transient response of quantum point contacts (QPCs) using pulsed excitation with sub-nanosecond time resolution. The transient response of these devices is shown to be dominated by a large parallel capacitance that is independent of the QPC conductance and pulse amplitude. These characteristics lead us to suggest that the capacitance is associated with charging of the two-dimensional reservoirs that source and sink current to the QPC. Our investigations also show that the transient conductance of the QPC must develop very quickly as the voltage pulse is applied, at least on a time scale shorter than the fastest rise time (2 ns) used in the experiments. We also find the existence of a characteristic fixed point in the non-linear conductance, at which its value is bias independent. The fixed point appears to correspond to the situation where the unbiased QPC is almost depopulated and can be accounted for by considering the unidirectional population of QPC subbands by the voltage bias. To discuss the behavior of the transient conductance away from the fixed point, we find that it should be necessary to consider the influence of the applied bias on the QPC profile and electron-phonon scattering. © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The purpose of this work was to develop a wavelength tunable detector for Terahertz spectroscopy and imaging. Our approach was to utilize plasmons in the channel of a specially designed field-effect transistor called the grating-gate detector. Grating-gate detectors exhibit narrow-linewidth, broad spectral tunability through application of a gate bias, and no angular dependence in their photoresponse. As such, if suitable sensitivity can be attained, they are viable candidates for Terahertz multi-spectral focal plane arrays. When this work began, grating-gate gate detectors, while having many promising characteristics, had a noise-equivalent power (NEP) of only 10{sup -5} W/{radical}Hz. Over the duration of this project, we have obtained a true NEP of 10{sup -8} W/{radical}Hz and a scaled NEP of 10{sup -9}W/{radical}Hz. The ultimate goal for these detectors is to reach a NEP in the 10{sup -9{yields}-10}W/{radical}Hz range; we have not yet seen a roadblock to continued improvement.

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This paper presents heterodyne mixer measurements at 2.9 THz using quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) as sources. The linewidth of the laser was explored by biasing it to run in dual mode operation and observing the linewidth of the beat note. In addition the frequency of the QCL is determined by beating it against a deuterated methanol line from a molecular gas laser.

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Solid-state lighting (SSL) technologies, based on semiconductor light emitting devices, have the potential to reduce worldwide electricity consumption by more than 10%, which could significantly reduce U.S. dependence on imported energy and improve energy security. The III-nitride (AlGaInN) materials system forms the foundation for white SSL and could cover a wide spectral range from the deep UV to the infrared. For this LDRD program, we have investigated the synthesis of single-crystalline III-nitride nanowires and heterostructure nanowires, which may possess unique optoelectronic properties. These novel structures could ultimately lead to the development of novel and highly efficient SSL nanodevice applications. GaN and III-nitride core-shell heterostructure nanowires were successfully synthesized by metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) on two-inch wafer substrates. The effect of process conditions on nanowire growth was investigated, and characterization of the structural, optical, and electrical properties of the nanowires was also performed.

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A split-grating-gate detector design has been implemented in an effort to combine the tunabiliry of the basic gratinggate detector with the high responsivity observed in these detectors when approaching the pinchoff regime. The redesign of the gates by itself offers several orders of magnitude improvement in resonant responsivity. Further improvements are gained by placing the detector element on a thermally isolating membrane in order to increase the effects of lattice heating on the device response.

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For several years now quantum computing has been viewed as a new paradigm for certain computing applications. Of particular importance to this burgeoning field is the development of an algorithm for factoring large numbers which obviously has deep implications for cryptography and national security. Implementation of these theoretical ideas faces extraordinary challenges in preparing and manipulating quantum states. The quantum transport group at Sandia has demonstrated world-leading, unique double quantum wires devices where we have unprecedented control over the coupling strength, number of 1 D channels, overlap and interaction strength in this nanoelectronic system. In this project, we study 1D-1D tunneling with the ultimate aim of preparing and detecting quantum states of the coupled wires. In a region of strong tunneling, electrons can coherently oscillate from one wire to the other. By controlling the velocity of the electrons, length of the coupling region and tunneling strength we will attempt to observe tunneling oscillations. This first step is critical for further development double quantum wires into the basic building block for a quantum computer, and indeed for other coupled nanoelectronic devices that will rely on coherent transport. If successful, this project will have important implications for nanoelectronics, quantum computing and information technology.

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We report low-dimensional transport and tunneling in an independently contacted vertically coupled quantum wire system, with a 7.5 nm barrier between the wires. The derivative of the linear conductance shows evidence for both single wire occupation and coupling between the wires. This provides a map of the subband occupation that illustrates the control that we have over the vertically coupled double quantum wires. Preliminary tunneling results indicate a sharp 1D-1D peak in conjunction with a broad 2D-2D background signal. This 1D-1D peak is sensitively dependent on the top and bottom split gate voltage. © 2005 American Institute of Physics.

The temperature dependence of the resistivity and magnetoresistance of dilute 2D electrons are reported. The temperature dependence of the resistivity can be qualitatively described through phonon and ionized impurity scattering. While the temperature dependence indicates no ln(T) increase in the resistance, a sharp negative magnetoresistance feature is observed at small magnetic fields. This is shown to arise from weak localization. At very low density, we believe weak localization is still present, but cannot separate it from other effects that cause magnetoresistance in the semi-classical regime. © 2005 American Institute of Physics.

We report a study on the uniformity of long quantum wires in the crossover from ballistic to diffuse transport with lengths ranging from 1 μm to 20 μm. For the 1 μm wire we measure 15 plateaus quantized at integer values of 2e2/h. With increasing length we observe plateaus at conductance values suppressed below the quantized values. With nonlinear fitting to the magnetoresistances we obtain an effective width for the quantum wires. As we find no systematic variation of the effective width as a function of sublevel index for the various length wires, we conclude that we have uniform long single quantum wires up to 20 μm. © 2005 American Institute of Physics.

We report the first demonstration of an all solid-state heterodyne receiver that can be used for high-resolution spectroscopy above 2 THz suitable for space-based observatories. The receiver uses a NbN superconducting hot-electron bolometer as mixer and a quantum cascade laser operating at 2.8 THz as local oscillator. We measure a double sideband receiver noise temperature of 1400 K at 2.8 THz and 4.2 K, and find that the free-running QCL has sufficient power stability for a practical receiver, demonstrating an unprecedented combination of sensitivity and stability. © 2005 American Institute of Physics.

A grating-gated field-effect transistor fabricated from a single-quantum well in a high-mobility GaAs-AlGaAs heterostructure is shown to function as a continuously electrically tunable photodetector of terahertz radiation via excitation of resonant plasmon modes in the well. Different harmonics of the plasmon wave vector are mapped, showing different branches of the dispersion relation. As a function of temperature, the resonant response magnitude peaks at around 30 K. Both photovoltaic and photoconductive responses have been observed under different incident power and bias conditions.

We report the demonstration of distributed-feedback terahertz quantum-cascade lasers based on a first-order grating fabricated via a lateral corrugation in a double-sided metal ridge waveguide. The phase of the facet reflection was precisely set by lithographically defined facets by dry etching. Single-mode emission was observed at low to moderate injection currents, although multimode emission was observed far beyond threshold owing to spatial hole burning. Finite-element simulations were used to calculate the modal and threshold characteristics for these devices, with results in good agreement with experiments.

We report the demonstration of a terahertz quantum-cascade laser that operates up to 164 K in pulsed mode and 117 K in continuous-wave mode at approximately 3.0 THz. The active region was based on a resonant-phonon depopulation scheme and a metal-metal waveguide was used for modal confinement. Copper to copper thermocompression wafer bonding was used to fabricate the waveguide, which displayed improved thermal properties compared to a previous indium-gold bonding method.

We have locked the frequency of a 3 THz quantum cascade laser (QCL) to that of a far-infrared gas laser with a tunable microwave offset frequency. The locked QCL line shape is essentially Gaussian, with linewidths of 65 and 141 kHz at the -3 and -10 dB levels, respectively. The lock condition can be maintained indefinitely, without requiring temperature or bias current regulation of the QCL other than that provided by the lock error signal. The result demonstrates that a terahertz QCL can be frequency controlled with 1-part-in-108 accuracy, which is a factor of 100 better than that needed for a local oscillator in a heterodyne receiver for atmospheric and astronomic spectroscopy.

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Quantum cascade lasers that operate in the underdeveloped terahertz spectral range (1-10 THz) promise to contribute to applications in sensing, spectroscopy, and imaging. We describe our development of terahertz quantum cascade lasers based on the resonant-phonon depopulation concept and that use low-loss metal-metal waveguides for optical confinement. Two- and three-dimensional finite-element simulations of terahertz metal-metal waveguides are used to demonstrate their high modal confinement even for very narrow ridges. Also, simulations predict high facet reflectivities due to the modal impedance mismatch with free space at the sub-wavelength waveguide aperture of these metal-metal waveguides. Finally, we report the demonstration of a 2.8 THz laser that operates up to 97 K in continuous-wave mode fabricated using a Cu-Cu thermocompression bonding technique.

The process of spontaneous lateral composition modulation in short-period InAs/AlAs superlattices has been investigated by grazing-incidence x-ray diffraction. We have developed a theoretical description of x-ray scattering from laterally modulated structures that makes it possible to determine the lateral composition modulation directly without assuming any structure model. From experimental intensity distributions in reciprocal space we have determined the amplitudes of the modulation and its degree of periodicity and their dependence on the number of superlattice periods. From the data it follows that the modulation process cannot be explained by bunching of monolayer steps and most likely, it is caused by stress-driven morphological instabilities of the growing surface.

There is a general lack of compact electromagnetic radiation sources between 1 and 10 terahertz (THz). This a challenging spectral region lying between optical devices at high frequencies and electronic devices at low frequencies. While technologically very underdeveloped the THz region has the promise to be of significant technological importance, yet demonstrating its relevance has proven difficult due to the immaturity of the area. While the last decade has seen much experimental work in ultra-short pulsed terahertz sources, many applications will require continuous wave (cw) sources, which are just beginning to demonstrate adequate performance for application use. In this project, we proposed examination of two potential THz sources based on intersubband semiconductor transitions, which were as yet unproven. In particular we wished to explore quantum cascade lasers based sources and electronic based harmonic generators. Shortly after the beginning of the project, we shifted our emphasis to the quantum cascade lasers due to two events; the publication of the first THz quantum cascade laser by another group thereby proving feasibility, and the temporary shut down of the UC Santa Barbara free-electron lasers which were to be used as the pump source for the harmonic generation. The development efforts focused on two separate cascade laser thrusts. The ultimate goal of the first thrust was for a quantum cascade laser to simultaneously emit two mid-infrared frequencies differing by a few THz and to use these to pump a non-linear optical material to generate THz radiation via parametric interactions in a specifically engineered intersubband transition. While the final goal was not realized by the end of the project, many of the completed steps leading to the goal will be described in the report. The second thrust was to develop direct THz QC lasers operating at terahertz frequencies. This is simpler than a mixing approach, and has now been demonstrated by a few groups with wavelengths spanning 65-150 microns. We developed and refined the MBE growth for THz for both internally and externally designed QC lasers. Processing related issues continued to plague many of our demonstration efforts and will also be addressed in this report.

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Macroscopic quantum states such as superconductors, Bose-Einstein condensates and superfluids are some of the most unusual states in nature. In this project, we proposed to design a semiconductor system with a 2D layer of electrons separated from a 2D layer of holes by a narrow (but high) barrier. Under certain conditions, the electrons would pair with the nearby holes and form excitons. At low temperature, these excitons could condense to a macroscopic quantum state either through a Bose-Einstein condensation (for weak exciton interactions) or a BCS transition to a superconductor (for strong exciton interactions). While the theoretical predictions have been around since the 1960's, experimental realization of electron-hole bilayer systems has been extremely difficult due to technical challenges. We identified four characteristics that if successfully incorporated into a device would give the best chances for excitonic condensation to be observed. These characteristics are closely spaced layers, low disorder, low density, and independent contacts to allow transport measurements. We demonstrated each of these characteristics separately, and then incorporated all of them into a single electron-hole bilayer device. The key to the sample design is using undoped GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructures processed in a field-effect transistor geometry. In such samples, the density of single 2D layers of electrons could be varied from an extremely low value of 2 x 10{sup 9} cm{sup -2} to high values of 3 x 10{sup 11} cm{sup -2}. The extreme low values of density that we achieved in single layer 2D electrons allowed us to make important contributions to the problem of the metal insulator transition in two dimensions, while at the same time provided a critical base for understanding low density 2D systems to be used in the electron-hole bilayer experiments. In this report, we describe the processing advances to fabricate single and double layer undoped samples, the low density results on single layers, and evidence for gateable undoped bilayers.

We present the design and fabrication of voltage tunable two-color superlattice infrared photodetectors (SLIPs), where the detection wavelength switches from the long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) range to the mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR) range upon reversing the polarity of applied bias. The photoactive region of these detectors contains multiple periods of two distinct short-period SLs that are designed for MWIR and LWIR detection. The voltage tunable operation is achieved by using two types of thick blocking barriers between adjacent SLs - undoped barriers on one side for low energy electrons and heavily-doped layers on the other side for high energy electrons. We grew two SLIP structures by molecular beam epitaxy. The first one consists of two AlGaAs/GaAs SLs with the detection range switching from the 7-11 μm band to the 4-7 μm range on reversing the bias polarity. The background-limited temperature is 55 and 80 K for LWIR and MWIR detection, respectively. The second structure comprises of strained InGaAs/GaAs/AlGaAs SLs and AlGaAs/GaAs SLs. The detection range of this SLIP changes from the 8-12 μm band to the 3-5 μm band on switching the bias polarity. The background-limited temperature is 70 and 110 K for LWIR and MWIR detection, respectively. This SLIP is the first ever voltage tunable MWIR/LWIR detector with performance comparable to those of one-color quantum-well infrared detectors designed for the respective wavelength ranges. We also demonstrate that the corrugated light coupling scheme, which enables normal-incidence absorption, is suitable for the two-color SLIPs. Since these SLIPs are two-terminal devices, they can be used with the corrugated geometry for the production of low-cost large-area two-color focal plane arrays.

We report low-dimensional tunneling in an independently contacted vertically coupled quantum wire system. This nanostructure is fabricated in a high quality GaAs/AlGaAs parallel double quantum well heterostructure. Using a unique flip chip technique to align top and bottom split gates to form low-dimensional constrictions in each of the independently contacted quantum wells we explicitly control the subband occupation of the individual wires. In addition to the expected two-dimensional (2D)-2D tunneling results, we have found additional tunneling features that are related to the one-dimensional quantum wires.

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A long-wavelength broadband quantum-well infrared photodetectors (QWIP) were analyzed using a superlattices (SL) with a binary basis. The binary SL (BSL) structure offered greater flexibility in spectral coverage and line shape. The energy levels and wave functions of one period of the BSL structure were calculated using the transfer matrix method. The photoresponse spectra from both wafers were found to be unchanged over a wide range of operating bias and temperature.

We report our development of terahertz (THz) quantum-cascade lasers (QCLs) based on two novel features. First, the depopulation of the lower radiative level is achieved through resonant longitudinal optical (LO-)phonon scattering. This depopulation mechanism is robust at high temperatures and high injection levels. In contrast to infrared QCLs that also use LO-phonon scattering for depopulation, in our THz lasers the selectivity of the depopulation scattering is achieved through a combination of resonant tunneling and LO-phonon scattering, hence the term resonant phonon. This resonant-phonon scheme allows a highly selective depopulation of the lower radiative level with a sub-picosecond lifetime, while maintaining a relatively long upper level lifetime (>5 ps) that is due to upper-to-ground-state scattering. The second feature of our lasers is that mode confinement is achieved by using a novel double-sided metal-metal waveguide, which yields an essentially unity mode confinement factor and therefore a low total cavity loss at THz frequencies. Based on these two unique features, we have achieved some record performance, including, but not limited to, the highest pulsed operating temperature of 137 K, the highest continuous-wave operating temperature of 97 K, and the longest wavelength of 141 {micro}m (corresponding to 2.1 THz) without the assistance of a magnetic field.

We demonstrate the presence of a resonant interaction between a pair of coupled quantum wires, which are formed in the ultrahigh mobility two-dimensional electron gas of a GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well. The coupled-wire system is realized by an extension of the split-gate technique, in which bias voltages are applied to Schottky gates on the semiconductor surface, to vary the width of the two quantum wires, as well as the strength of the coupling between them. The key observation of interest here is one in which the gate voltages used to define one of the wires are first fixed, after which the conductance of this wire is measured as the gate voltage used to form the other wire is swept. Over the range of gate voltage where the swept wire pinches off, we observe a resonant peak in the conductance of the fixed wire that is correlated precisely to this pinchoff condition. In this paper, we present new results on the current- and temperature-dependence of this conductance resonance, which we suggest is related to the formation of a local moment in the swept wire as its conductance is reduced below 2e2/h.

We demonstrate the presence of a resonant interaction between a pair of coupled quantum wires, which are realized in the ultra-high mobility two-dimensional electron gas of a GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well. Measuring the conductance of one wire, as the width of the other is varied, we observe a resonant peak in its conductance that is correlated with the point at which the swept wire pinches off. We discuss this behavior in terms of recent theoretical predictions concerning local spin-moment formation in quantum wires.

We report our development of terahertz (THz) quantum cascade lasers (QCLs), in which the depopulation of the lower radiative level is achieved through resonant longitudinal optical (LO) phonon scattering. This depopulation mechanism, similar to that implemented in all the QCLs operating at mid-infrared frequencies, is robust at high temperatures and high injection levels. The unique feature of resonant LO-phonon scattering in our THz QCL structures allows a highly selective depopulation of the lower radiative level with a sub-picosecond lifetime, while maintaining a relatively long upper level lifetime (more than 5 ps) that is due to upper-to-ground-state scattering. The first QCL based on this mechanism achieved lasing at 3.4 THz (λ ≈ 87 μm) up to 87 K for pulsed operations, with peak power levels exceeding 10 mW at ca. 40 K. Using a novel double-sided metal waveguide for mode confinement, which yields a unity mode confinement factor and therefore a low total cavity loss at THz frequencies, we have also achieved lasing at wavelengths longer than 100 μm.

A voltage tunable two-color detector that contained multiple periods of AlGaAs/GaAs superlatice pairs was studied. It was found that the peak wavelength switched from 9.5 μm under large positive bias to 6 μm under negative bias. The background-limited temperature was found to be 55 K for 9.5 μm detection and 80 K for 6 μm detection. It was demonstrated that corrugated Quantum-well infrared photodetectors (C-QWIP) were capable of coupling normally incident light for this two color application.

The operation of a tetrahertz quantum-cascade laser at 3.8 THz (λ= 79 μm) up to a heat sink temperature of 137 K was presented. A resonant phonon depopulation design was used with a low-loss metal-metal waveguide, providing a confinement factor of nearly unity. A threshold current density of 625 A/cm 2 was found in pulsed mode at 5 K. It was found that a thicker barrier reduced the coupling between the injector state and the excited state in the wide well of the module, which was caused by the parasitic current channel.

A report lasing at ∼3.0 THz (λ≈98-102 μm) in which mode confinement was provided by a double-sided metal waveguide was presented. The waveguide consists of metallic films placed above and below the 10-μm-thick multiple-quantum-well gain region, which gives low losses and a modal confinement factor of nearly unity. The one-dimensional mode patterns for the two waveguides were calculated using a Drude model solver.

Terahertz lasing in a quantum cascade structure in pulsed mode up to a temperature of 87K at a wavelength of λ= 88 μm (3.4 THz) has been obtained. At 5K, a peak power of approximately 3.4 mW is observed, with still ∼1 mW at 78K.

Nonlocal resonant interaction between coupled quantum wires was studied. A resonant peak in the conductance that was correlated to the point at which the other wire pinches off was observed by measuring the conductance of one of the wires, as width of the other was varied. A micrograph of the device structure and schematics which illustrated the different measurements was showed.

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Coupled double quantum well field-effect transistors with a grating gate exhibit a terahertz ({approx}600 GHz) photoconductive response that resonates with standing two dimensional plasma oscillations under the gate and may be the basis for developing a fast, tunable terahertz detector. The application of a precisely aligned in-plane magnetic field produces no detectable change in the device DC conductance but produces a dramatic inversion, growth of the terahertz photoconductive response and frequency shift of the standing plasmon resonances. The frequency shift can be described by a significant mass increase produced by the in-plane field. The mass increase is substantially larger than that calculated from a single well and we presume that a proper treatment of the coupled double quantum well may resolve this discrepancy.

Many MEMS-based components require optical monitoring techniques using optoelectronic devices for converting mechanical position information into useful electronic signals. While the constituent piece-parts of such hybrid opto-MEMS components can be separately optimized, the resulting component performance, size, ruggedness and cost are substantially compromised due to assembly and packaging limitations. GaAs MOEMS offers the possibility of monolithically integrating high-performance optoelectronics with simple mechanical structures built in very low-stress epitaxial layers with a resulting component performance determined only by GaAs microfabrication technology limitations. GaAs MOEMS implicitly integrates the capability for radiation-hardened optical communications into the MEMS sensor or actuator component, a vital step towards rugged integrated autonomous microsystems that sense, act, and communicate. This project establishes a new foundational technology that monolithically combines GaAs optoelectronics with simple mechanics. Critical process issues addressed include selectivity, electrochemical characteristics, and anisotropy of the release chemistry, and post-release drying and coating processes. Several types of devices incorporating this novel technology are demonstrated.

The temperature dependence of electron transfer between coupled quantum wells in a voltage tunable two-color quantum-well infrared photodetector (QWIP) was reported. It was shown that the electron transfer process is efficient only when interwell tunneling dominates. It was found that when thermoionic emission is substantial, electrons tend to accumulate in the shorter wavelength quantum well.

We present a self-consistent modeling of a 3.4-THz intersubband laser device. An ensemble Monte Carlo simulation, including both carrier-carrier and carrier-phonon scattering, is used to predict current density, population inversion, gain, and electron temperature. However, these two scattering mechanisms alone appear to be insufficient to explain the observed current density. In addition, the insufficient scattering yields a gain that is slightly higher than inferred from experiments. This suggests the presence of a non-negligible scattering mechanism which is unaccounted for in the present calculations.

The goal of this LDRD was to engineer further improvements in a novel electron tunneling device, the double electron layer tunneling transistor (DELTT). The DELTT is a three terminal quantum device, which does not require lateral depletion or lateral confinement, but rather is entirely planar in configuration. The DELTT's operation is based on 2D-2D tunneling between two parallel 2D electron layers in a semiconductor double quantum well heterostructure. The only critical dimensions reside in the growth direction, thus taking full advantage of the single atomic layer resolution of existing semiconductor growth techniques such as molecular beam epitaxy. Despite these advances, the original DELTT design suffered from a number of performance short comings that would need to be overcome for practical applications. These included (i)a peak voltage too low ({approx}20 mV) to interface with conventional electronics and to be robust against environmental noise, (ii) a low peak current density, (iii) a relatively weak dependence of the peak voltage on applied gate voltage, and (iv) an operating temperature that, while fairly high, remained below room temperature. In this LDRD we designed and demonstrated an advanced resonant tunneling transistor that incorporates structural elements both of the DELTT and of conventional double barrier resonant tunneling diodes (RTDs). Specifically, the device is similar to the DELTT in that it is based on 2D-2D tunneling and is controlled by a surface gate, yet is also similar to the RTD in that it has a double barrier structure and a third collector region. Indeed, the device may be thought of either as an RTD with a gate-controlled, fully 2D emitter, or alternatively, as a ''3-layer DELTT,'' the name we have chosen for the device. This new resonant tunneling transistor retains the original DELTT advantages of a planar geometry and sharp 2D-2D tunneling characteristics, yet also overcomes the performance shortcomings of the original DELTT design. In particular, it exhibits the high peak voltages and current densities associated with conventional RTDs, allows sensitive control of the peak voltage by the control gate, and operates nearly at room temperature. Finally, we note under this LDRD we also investigated the use of three layer DELTT structures as long wavelength (Terahertz) detectors using photon-assisted tunneling. We have recently observed a narrowband (resonant) tunable photoresponse in related structures consisting of grating-gated double quantum wells, and report on that work here as well.

Magnetotransport in a laterally confined two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) can exhibit modified scattering channels owing to a tilted Hall potential. Transitions of electrons between Landau levels with shifted guiding centers can be accomplished through a Zener tunneling mechanism, and make a significant contribution to the magnetoresistance. A remarkable oscillation effect in weak field magnetoresistance has been observed in high-mobility 2DEGs in [Formula presented] heterostructures, and can be well explained by the Zener mechanism. © 2002 The American Physical Society.

Abstract not provided.

A new class of magneto-oscillations in a high-density 2DEG was obtained and interpreted as the magnetophonon resonance with leaky interface-acoustic phonons. It was shown that owing to their 2D characteristics, the leaky interface modes play a key role in the scattering of 2D electrons in GaAs-AlGa-As heterostructures and quantum wells.

The lateral composition modulation in (InAs)n/(AIAs)m short-period superlattices was studied by means of synchrotron x-ray diffraction. By choosing specific diffraction vectors having a large component closely parallel to the modulation direction, we are able to observe a number of lateral satellite peaks around the zero-order short-period superlattice peak. A model, incorporating both composition and strain, is used to simulate the intensities of these satellites. Our results provide a quantitative fit and permit the evaluation of the composition amplitude. © 2001 American Institute of Physics.

The nature and origin of lateral composition modulations in (AlAs)m(InAs)n short-period strained-layer superlattices grown by molecular beam epitaxy on InP substrates have been investigated by x-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. Strong modulations were observed for growth temperatures between ~ 540 and 560° C. The maximum strength of modulations was found for SPS samples with InAs mole fraction x (= n/(n+m)) close to = 0.50 and when n - m = 2. The modulations were suppressed at both high and low values of x. For x > 0.52 (global compression), the modulations were along the <100> directions in the (001) growth plane. For x < 0.52 (global tension), the modulations were along the two <310> directions rotated = +27° from [110] in the growth plane. The remarkably constant wavelength of the modulations, between = 20-30 nm, and the different modulation directions observed, suggest that the origin of the modulations is due to surface roughening associated with the high misfit between the individual SPS layers and the InP substrate. Highly uniform unidirectional modulations have been grown by control of the InAs mole fraction and growth on suitably offcut substrates, which show great promise for application in device structures. ©2000 Materials Research Society.

The effect of lateral composition modulation, spontaneously generated during the epitaxial growth of an AlAs/InAs short-period superlattice, on the electronic band structure is investigated using phototransmission and photoluminescence spectroscopy. Compared with uniform layers of identical average composition, the presence of the composition modulation considerably reduces the band-gap energy and produces strongly polarized emission and absorption spectra. We demonstrate that the dominant polarization direction can selectively be aligned along the [1̄10] or [010] crystallographic directions. In compressively strained samples, the use of (001) InP substrates slightly miscut toward (111)A or (101) resulted in modulation directions along [110] or [100], respectively, and dominant polarization directions along a direction orthogonal to the respective composition modulation. Band-gap reductions as high as 350 and 310 meV are obtained for samples with composition modulation along [110] and [100], respectively. Ratios of polarized intensities up to 26 are observed in transmission spectra. © 2000 American Institute of Physics.

Growth of InAs/AlAs short-period superlattices on appropriately miscut (001) InP substrates is shown to alter the microstructure of composition modulation from a two-dimensional organization of short compositionally enriched wires to a single dominant modulation direction with wire lengths up to ∼ 1 μm. The effects of miscut are interpreted in terms of surface step orientation and character. The material is strongly modulated and exhibits intense optical emission. The one-dimensional modulations appear potentially useful for new devices that take advantage of the preferred direction formed in the growth plane. © 2000 American Institute of Physics.

A novel planar resonant tunneling transistor is demonstrated. The growth structure is similar to that of a double-barrier resonant tunneling diode (RTD), except for a fully two-dimensional (2D) emitter formed by a quantum well. Current is fed laterally into the emitter, and the 2D--2D resonant tunneling current is controlled by a surface gate. This unique device structure achieves figures-of-merit, i.e. peak current densities and peak voltages, approaching that of state-of-the-art RTDs. Most importantly, sensitive control of the peak current and voltage is achieved by gating of the emitter quantum well subband energy. This quantum tunneling transistor shows exceptional promise for ultra-high speed and multifunctional operation at room temperature.

The authors report on their recent experimental studies of vertically-coupled quantum point contacts subject to in-plane magnetic fields. Using a novel flip-chip technique, mutually aligned split gates on both sides of a sub micron thick double quantum well heterostructure define a closely-coupled pair of ballistic one-dimensional (1D) constrictions. They observe quantized conductance steps due to each quantum well and demonstrate independent control of each ID constriction width. In addition, a novel magnetoconductance feature at {approximately}6 T is observed when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to both the current and growth directions. This conductance dip is observed only when 1D subbands are populated in both the top and bottom constrictions. This data is consistent with a counting model whereby the number of subbands crossing the Fermi level changes with field due to the formation of an anticrossing in each pair of 1D subbands.

The effect of the nuclear hyperfine interaction on the dc conductivity of 2D electrons under quantum Hall effect conditions at filling factor v= 1 is observed for the first time. The local hyperfine field enhanced by dynamic nuclear polarization is monitored via the Overhauser shift of the 2D conduction electron spin resonance in AlGaAs/GaAs multiquantum-well samples. The experimentally observed change in the dc conductivity resulting from dynamic nuclear polarization is in agreement with a thermal activation model incorporating the Zeeman energy change due to the hyperfine interaction. The relaxation decay time of the dc conductivity is, within experimental error, the same as the relaxation time of the nuclear spin polarization determined from the Overhauser shift. These findings unequivocally establish the nuclear spin origins of the observed conductivity change.

Polarized magneto-photoluminescence (MPL) measurements on a high mobility {delta}-doped GaAs/AlGaAs single quantum well from 0--60 T at temperatures between 0.37--2.1 K are reported. In addition to the neutral heavy hole magneto-exciton (X{sup 0}), the singlet (X {sub s}{sup {minus}}) and triplet (X {sub t}{sup {minus}}) states of the negatively charged magneto-exciton are observed in both polarizations. The energy dispersive and time-resolved MPL data suggest that their development is fundamentally related to the formation of the neutral magneto-exciton. At a magnetic field of 40 T the singlet and the triplet states cross as a result of the role played by the higher Landau levels and higher energy subbands in their energetic evolution, confirming theoretical predictions. The authors also observed the formation of two higher energy peaks. One of them is completely right circularly polarized and its appearance can be considered a result of the electron-hole exchange interaction enhancement with an associated electron g-factor of 3.7 times the bulk value. The other peak completely dominates the MPL spectrum at fields around 30 T. Its behavior with magnetic field and temperature indicates that it may be related to previous anomalies observed in the integer and fractional quantum Hall regimes.

The microstructure of lateral composition modulation in InAs/AlAs superlattices grown by MBE on InP is examined. The use of x-ray diffraction, TEM, AFM, and STEM to characterize the modulations is discussed. Combining the information from these techniques gives increased insight into the phenomenon and how to manipulate it. Diffraction measures the intensity of modulation and its wavelength, and is used to identify growth conditions giving strong modulation. The TEM and STEM analyses indicate that local compositions are modulated by as much as 0.38 InAs mole fraction. Plan-view images show that modulated structures consists of short ({approx_lt}0.2 {micro}m) In-rich wires with a 2D organization in a (001) growth plane. However, growth on miscut substrates can produce a single modulation along the miscut direction with much longer wires ({approx_gt}0.4 {micro}m), as desired for potential applications. Photoluminescence studies demonstrate that the modulation has large effects on the bandgap energy of the superlattice.

We study the low-temperature in-plane magnetoconductance of vertically coupled double quantum wires. Using a novel flip-chip technique, the wires are defined by two pairs of mutually aligned split gates on opposite sides of a≤1 micron thick AlGaAs/GaAs double quantum well heterostructure. We observe quantized conductance steps due to each quantum well and demonstrate independent control of each 1D wire. A broad dip in the magnetoconductance at approximately 6 T is observed when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to both the current and growth directions. This conductance dip is observed only when 1D subbands are populated in both the top and bottom constrictions. This data is consistent with a counting model whereby the number of subbands crossing the Fermi level changes with field due to the formation of an anticrossing in each pair of 1D subbands.