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Next-generation infrared focal plane arrays for high-responsivity low-noise applications

IEEE Aerospace Conference Proceedings

Goldflam, Michael G.; Hawkins, Samuel D.; Parameswaran, Sivasubramanian P.; Tauke-Pedretti, Anna; Warne, Larry K.; Peters, D.W.; Campione, Salvatore; Coon, W.T.; Keeler, Gordon A.; Shaner, Eric A.; Wendt, J.R.; Kadlec, Emil A.; Fortune, Torben R.; Klem, John F.; Davids, Paul D.; Kim, Jin K.

High-quality infrared focal plane arrays (FPAs) are used in many satellite, astronomical, and terrestrial applications. These applications require highly-sensitive, low-noise FPAs, and therefore do not benefit from advances made in low-cost thermal imagers where reducing cost and enabling high-temperature operation drive device development. Infrared detectors used in FPAs have been made for decades from alloys of mercury cadmium telluride (MCT). These infrared detectors are nearing the believed limit of their performance. This limit, known in the infrared detector community as Rule 07, dictates the dark current floor for MCT detectors, in their traditional architecture, for a given temperature and cutoff wavelength. To overcome the bounds imposed by Rule 07, many groups are working on detector compounds other than MCT. We focus on detectors employing III-V-based gallium-free InAsSb superlattice active regions while also changing the basic architecture of the pixel to improve signal-to-noise. Our architecture relies on a resonant, metallic, subwavelength nanoantenna patterned on the absorber surface, in combination with a Fabry-Pérot cavity, to couple the incoming radiation into tightly confined modes near the nanoantenna. This confinement of the incident energy in a thin layer allows us to greatly reduce the volume of the absorbing layer to a fraction of the free-space wavelength, yielding a corresponding reduction in dark current from spontaneously generated electron-hole pairs in the absorber material. This architecture is detector material agnostic and could be applied to MCT detector structures as well, although we focus on using superlattice antimonide-based detector materials. This detector concept has been applied to both mid-wave (3-5 μm) and longwave (8-12 μm) infrared detectors and absorbers. Here we examine long-wave devices, as these detectors currently have a larger gap between desired device performance and that of currently existing detectors. The measured structures show an external quantum efficiency exceeding 50%. We present a comparison of the modeled and measured photoresponse of these detectors and compare these detectors to currently available commercial detectors using relevant metrics such as external quantum efficiency. We also discuss modeling of crosstalk between adjacent pixels and its influence on the potential for a dual-wavelength detector. Finally, we evaluate potential advances in these detectors that may occur in the near future.

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Photoelectric polarization-sensitive broadband photoresponse from interface junction states in graphene

2D Materials

Kalugin, Nikolai G.; Jing, Lei; Morell, Eric S.; Dyer, Gregory C.; Wickey, Lee; Ovezmyradov, Mekan; Grine, Albert D.; Wanke, Michael W.; Shaner, Eric A.; Lau, Chun N.; Foa Torres, Luis E.F.; Fistul, Mikhail V.; Efetov, Konstantin B.

Graphene has established itself as a promising optoelectronic material. Many details of the photoresponse (PR) mechanisms in graphene in the THz-to-visible range have been revealed, however, new intricacies continue to emerge. Interface junctions, formed at the boundaries between parts of graphene with different number of layers or different stacking orders, and making connection between electrical contacts, provide another peculiar setup to establish PR. Here, we experimentally demonstrate an enhanced polarization sensitive photoelectric PR in graphene sheets containing interface junctions as compared to homogenous graphene sheets in the visible, infrared, and THz spectral regions. Our numerical simulations show that highly localized electronic states are created at the interface junctions, and these states exhibit a unique energy spectrum and enhanced probabilities for optical transitions. The interaction of electrons from interface junction states with electromagnetic fields generates a polarization-sensitive PR that is maximal for the polarization direction perpendicular to the junction interface.

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Enhanced infrared detectors using resonant structures combined with thin type-II superlattice absorbers

Applied Physics Letters

Goldflam, Michael G.; Kadlec, Emil A.; Olson, B.V.; Klem, John F.; Hawkins, Samuel D.; Parameswaran, Sivasubramanian P.; Coon, W.T.; Keeler, Gordon A.; Fortune, Torben R.; Tauke-Pedretti, Anna; Wendt, J.R.; Shaner, Eric A.; Davids, Paul D.; Kim, Jin K.; Peters, D.W.

We examined the spectral responsivity of a 1.77 μm thick type-II superlattice based long-wave infrared detector in combination with metallic nanoantennas. Coupling between the Fabry-Pérot cavity formed by the semiconductor layer and the resonant nanoantennas on its surface enables spectral selectivity, while also increasing peak quantum efficiency to over 50%. Electromagnetic simulations reveal that this high responsivity is a direct result of field-enhancement in the absorber layer, enabling significant absorption in spite of the absorber's subwavelength thickness. Notably, thinning of the absorbing material could ultimately yield lower photodetector noise through a reduction in dark current while improving photocarrier collection efficiency. The temperature- and incident-angle-independent spectral response observed in these devices allows for operation over a wide range of temperatures and optical systems. This detector paradigm demonstrates potential benefits to device performance with applications throughout the infrared.

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Evidence of a Shockley-Read-Hall Defect State Independent of Band-Edge Energy in InAs/In(As,Sb) Type-II Superlattices

Physical Review Applied

Aytac, Yigit A.; Olson, Ben O.; Kim, Jin K.; Shaner, Eric A.; Hawkins, Samuel D.; Klem, John F.; Flatte, Michael E.; Boggess, Tom B.

A set of seven InAs/InAsSb type-II superlattices (T2SLs) were designed to have speci c bandgap energies between 290 meV (4.3 m) and 135 meV (9.2 m) in order to study the e ects of the T2SL bandgap energy on the minority carrier lifetime. A temperature dependent optical pump-probe technique is used to measure the carrier lifetimes, and the e ect of a mid-gap defect level on the carrier recombination dynamics is reported. The Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) defect state is found to be at energy of approximately -250 12 meV relative to the valence band edge of bulk GaSb for the entire set of T2SL structures, even though the T2SL valence band edge shifts by 155 meV on the same scale. These results indicate that the SRH defect state in InAs/InAsSb T2SLs is singular and is nearly independent of the exact position of the T2SL bandgap or band edge energies. They also suggest the possibility of engineering the T2SL structure such that the SRH state is removed completely from the bandgap, a result that should signi cantly increase the minority carrier lifetime.

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Minority carrier lifetimes in very long-wave infrared InAs/GaInSb superlattices

Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B: Nanotechnology and Microelectronics

Haugan, Heather J.; Brown, Gail J.; Olson, Benjamin V.; Kadlec, Emil A.; Kim, Jin K.; Shaner, Eric A.

Significantly improved carrier lifetimes in very-long wave infrared InAs/GaInSb superlattice (SL) absorbers are demonstrated by using time-resolved microwave reflectance (TMR) measurements. A nominal 47.0 Å InAs/21.5 Å Ga0.75In0.25Sb SL structure that produces an approximately 25 μm response at 10 K has a minority carrier lifetime of 140 ± 20 ns at 18 K, which is markedly long for SL absorber with such a narrow bandgap. This improvement is attributed to the strain-engineered ternary design. Such SL employs a shorter period with reduced gallium in order to achieve good optical absorption and epitaxial advantages, which ultimately leads to the improvements in the minority carrier lifetime by reducing Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) defects. By analyzing the temperature-dependence of TMR decay data, the recombination mechanisms and trap states that currently limit the performance of this SL absorber have been identified. The results show a general decrease in the long-decay lifetime component, which is dominated by the SRH recombination at temperature below ∼30 K, and by Auger recombination at temperatures above ∼45 K.

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Auger recombination in long-wave infrared InAs/InAsSb type-II superlattices

Applied Physics Letters

Olson, B.V.; Grein, C.H.; Kim, Jin K.; Kadlec, Emil A.; Klem, John F.; Hawkins, Samuel D.; Shaner, Eric A.

The Auger lifetime is a critical intrinsic parameter for infrared photodetectors as it determines the longest potential minority carrier lifetime and consequently the fundamental limitations to their performance. Here, Auger recombination is characterized in a long-wave infrared InAs/InAsSb type-II superlattice. Auger coefficients as small as 7.1 × 10 - 26 cm6/s are experimentally measured using carrier lifetime data at temperatures in the range of 20 K-80 K. The data are compared to Auger-1 coefficients predicted using a 14-band K · p electronic structure model and to coefficients calculated for HgCdTe of the same bandgap. The experimental superlattice Auger coefficients are found to be an order-of-magnitude smaller than HgCdTe.

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Minority carrier lifetime and dark current measurements in mid-wavelength infrared InAs0.91Sb0.09 alloy nBn photodetectors

Applied Physics Letters

Olson, B.V.; Kim, Jin K.; Kadlec, Emil A.; Klem, John F.; Hawkins, Samuel D.; Leonhardt, Darin L.; Coon, W.T.; Fortune, Torben R.; Cavaliere, Melissa A.; Tauke-Pedretti, Anna; Shaner, Eric A.

Carrier lifetime and dark current measurements are reported for a mid-wavelength infrared InAs0.91Sb0.09 alloy nBn photodetector. Minority carrier lifetimes are measured using a non-contact time-resolved microwave technique on unprocessed portions of the nBn wafer and the Auger recombination Bloch function parameter is determined to be |F1F2|=0.292. The measured lifetimes are also used to calculate the expected diffusion dark current of the nBn devices and are compared with the experimental dark current measured in processed photodetector pixels from the same wafer. Excellent agreement is found between the two, highlighting the important relationship between lifetimes and diffusion currents in nBn photodetectors.

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Enhanced optical nonlinearities in the near-infrared using III-nitride heterostructures coupled to metamaterials

Applied Physics Letters

Wolf, Omri W.; Allerman, A.A.; Ma, Xuedan M.; Wendt, J.R.; Song, Alex Y.; Shaner, Eric A.; Brener, Igal B.

We use planar metamaterial resonators to enhance by more than two orders of magnitude the near infrared second harmonic generation obtained from intersubband transitions in III-Nitride heterostructures. The improvement arises from two factors: employing an asymmetric double quantum well design and aligning the resonators' cross-polarized resonances with the intersubband transition energies. The resulting nonlinear metamaterial operates at wavelengths where single photon detection is available, and represents a different class of sources for quantum photonics related phenomena.

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Demonstration of long minority carrier lifetimes in very narrow bandgap ternary InAs/GaInSb superlattices

Applied Physics Letters

Haugan, H.J.; Brown, G.J.; Olson, B.V.; Kadlec, Emil A.; Kim, Jin K.; Shaner, Eric A.

Minority carrier lifetimes in very long wavelength infrared (VLWIR) InAs/GaInSb superlattices (SLs) are reported using time-resolved microwave reflectance measurements. A strain-balanced ternary SL absorber layer of 47.0Å InAs/21.5Å Ga0.75In0.25Sb, corresponding to a bandgap of ∼50meV, is found to have a minority carrier lifetime of 140±20ns at ∼18K. This lifetime is extraordinarily long, when compared to lifetime values previously reported for other VLWIR SL detector materials. This enhancement is attributed to the strain-engineered ternary design, which offers a variety of epitaxial advantages and ultimately leads to a reduction of defect-mediated recombination centers.

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Temperature-dependent optical measurements of the dominant recombination mechanisms in InAs/InAsSb type-2 superlattices

Journal of Applied Physics

Olson, Benjamin V.; Shaner, Eric A.; Kim, Jin K.; Hawkins, Samuel D.; Klem, John F.; Boggoss, Thomas F.; Flatte, Michael E.; Aytac, Yigit A.

We present that temperature-dependent measurements of carrier recombination rates using a time-resolved optical pump-probe technique are reported for mid-wave infrared InAs/InAs1-xSbx type-2 superlattices (T2SLs). By engineering the layer widths and alloy compositions, a 16 K band-gap of ~235 ± 10 meV was achieved for five unintentionally and four intentionally doped T2SLs. Carrier lifetimes were determined by fitting lifetime models based on Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH), radiative, and Auger recombination processes to the temperature and excess carrier density dependent data. The minority carrier (MC), radiative, and Auger lifetimes were observed to generally increase with increasing antimony content and decreasing layer thickness for the unintentionally doped T2SLs. The MC lifetime is limited by SRH processes at temperatures below 200 K in the unintentionally doped T2SLs. The extracted SRH defect energy levels were found to be near mid-bandgap. Additionally, it is observed that the MC lifetime is limited by Auger recombination in the intentionally doped T2SLs with doping levels greater than n ~1016 cm-3.

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Monolayer-by-monolayer compositional analysis of InAs/InAsSb superlattices with cross-sectional STM

Journal of Crystal Growth

Wood, M.R.; Kanedy, K.; Lopez, F.; Weimer, M.; Klem, John F.; Hawkins, Samuel D.; Shaner, Eric A.; Kim, Jin K.

We use cross-sectional scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) to reconstruct the monolayer-by-monolayer composition profile across a representative subset of MBE-grown InAs/InAsSb superlattice layers and find that antimony segregation frustrates the intended compositional discontinuities across both antimonide-on-arsenide and arsenide-on-antimonide heterojunctions. Graded, rather than abrupt, interfaces are formed in either case. We likewise find that the incorporated antimony per superlattice period varies measurably from beginning to end of the multilayer stack. Although the intended antimony discontinuities predict significant discrepancies with respect to the experimentally observed high-resolution x-ray diffraction spectrum, dynamical simulations based on the STM-derived profiles provide an excellent quantitative match to all important aspects of the x-ray data.

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Microwave conductance properties of aligned multiwall carbon nanotube textile sheets

Journal of Applied Physics

Brown, Brian L.; Martinez, Patricia; Zakhidov, Anvar A.; Shaner, Eric A.; Lee, Mark

Understanding the conductance properties of multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT) textile sheets in the microwave regime is essential for their potential use in high-speed and high-frequency applications. To expand current knowledge, complex high-frequency conductance measurements from 0.01 to 50 GHz and across temperatures from 4.2 K to 300 K and magnetic fields up to 2 T were made on textile sheets of highly aligned MWNTs with strand alignment oriented both parallel and perpendicular to the microwave electric field polarization. Sheets were drawn from 329 and 520 μm high MWNT forests that resulted in different DC resistance anisotropy. For all samples, the microwave conductance can be modeled approximately by a shunt capacitance in parallel with a frequency-independent conductance, but with no inductive contribution. This is consistent with diffusive Drude conduction as the primary transport mechanism up to 50 GHz. Further, it is found that the microwave conductance is essentially independent of both temperature and magnetic field.

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Phased-array sources based on nonlinear metamaterial nanocavities

Nature Communications

Wolf, Omri W.; Campione, Salvatore; Benz, Alexander; Ravikumar, Arvind P.; Liu, Sheng L.; Luk, Ting S.; Kadlec, Emil A.; Shaner, Eric A.; Klem, John F.; Sinclair, Michael B.; Brener, Igal B.

Coherent superposition of light from subwavelength sources is an attractive prospect for the manipulation of the direction, shape and polarization of optical beams. This phenomenon constitutes the basis of phased arrays, commonly used at microwave and radio frequencies. Here we propose a new concept for phased-array sources at infrared frequencies based on metamaterial nanocavities coupled to a highly nonlinear semiconductor heterostructure. Optical pumping of the nanocavity induces a localized, phase-locked, nonlinear resonant polarization that acts as a source feed for a higher-order resonance of the nanocavity. Varying the nanocavity design enables the production of beams with arbitrary shape and polarization. As an example, we demonstrate two second harmonic phased-array sources that perform two optical functions at the second harmonic wavelength (∼5μm): a beam splitter and a polarizing beam splitter. Proper design of the nanocavity and nonlinear heterostructure will enable such phased arrays to span most of the infrared spectrum.

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Intensity- and Temperature-Dependent Carrier Recombination in InAs/InAs1-x S bx Type-II Superlattices

Physical Review Applied

Olson, B.V.; Kadlec, Emil A.; Kim, Jin K.; Klem, John F.; Hawkins, Samuel D.; Shaner, Eric A.; Flatté, M.E.

Time-resolved measurements of carrier recombination are reported for a midwave infrared InAs/InAs0.66Sb0.34 type-II superlattice (T2SL) as a function of pump intensity and sample temperature. By including the T2SL doping level in the analysis, the Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH), radiative, and Auger recombination components of the carrier lifetime are uniquely distinguished at each temperature. SRH is the limiting recombination mechanism for excess carrier densities less than the doping level (the low-injection regime) and temperatures less than 175 K. A SRH defect energy of 95 meV, either below the T2SL conduction-band edge or above the T2SL valence-band edge, is identified. Auger recombination limits the carrier lifetimes for excess carrier densities greater than the doping level (the high-injection regime) for all temperatures tested. Additionally, at temperatures greater than 225 K, Auger recombination also limits the low-injection carrier lifetime due to the onset of the intrinsic temperature range and large intrinsic carrier densities. Radiative recombination is found to not have a significant contribution to the total lifetime for all temperatures and injection regimes, with the data implying a photon recycling factor of 15. Using the measured lifetime data, diffusion currents are calculated and compared to calculated Hg1-xCdxTe dark current, indicating that the T2SL can have a lower dark current with mitigation of the SRH defect states. These results illustrate the potential for InAs/InAs1-xSbx T2SLs as absorbers in infrared photodetectors.

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Results 26–50 of 179
Results 26–50 of 179