Prendergast, Matthew B.; Kirk, Benjamin B.; Savee, John D.; Osborn, David L.; Taatjes, Craig A.; Masters, Kye S.; Blanksby, Stephen J.; Da Silva, Gabriel; Trevitt, Adam J.
Gas-phase product detection studies of o-hydroxyphenyl radical and O2 are reported at 373, 500, and 600 K, at 4 Torr (533.3 Pa), using VUV time-resolved synchrotron photoionisation mass spectrometry. The dominant products are assigned as o-benzoquinone (C6H4O2, m/z 108) and cyclopentadienone (C5H4O, m/z 80). It is concluded that cyclopentadienone forms as a secondary product from prompt decomposition of o-benzoquinone (and dissociative ionization of o-benzoquinone may contribute to the m/z 80 signal at photon energies ≳9.8 eV). Ion-trap reactions of the distonic o-hydroxyphenyl analogue, the 5-ammonium-2-hydroxyphenyl radical cation, with O2 are also reported and concur with the assignment of o-benzoquinone as the dominant product. The ion-trap study also provides support for a mechanism where cyclopentadienone is produced by decarbonylation of o-benzoquinone. Kinetic studies compare oxidation of the ammonium-tagged o-hydroxyphenyl and o-methylphenyl radical cations along with trimethylammonium-tagged analogues. Reaction efficiencies are found to be ca. 5% for both charge-tagged o-hydroxyphenyl and o-methylphenyl radicals irrespective of the charged substituent. G3X-K quantum chemical calculations are deployed to rationalise experimental results for o-hydroxyphenyl + O2 and its charge-tagged counterpart. The prevailing reaction mechanism, after O2 addition, involves a facile 1,5-H shift in the peroxyl radical and subsequent elimination of OH to yield o-benzoquinone that is reminiscent of the Waddington mechanism for β-hydroxyperoxyl radicals. These results suggest o-hydroxyphenyl + O2 and decarbonylation of o-benzoquinone serve as plausible OH and CO sources in combustion.
Soot formation in combustion is a complex process in which polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are believed to play a critical role. Recent works concluded that three consecutive additions of acetylene (C2H2) to propargyl (C3H3) create a facile route to the PAH indene (C9H8). However, the isomeric forms of C5H5 and C7H7 intermediates in this reaction sequence are not known. We directly investigate these intermediates using time- and isomer-resolved experiments. Both the resonance stabilized vinylpropargyl (vp-C5H5) and 2,4-cyclopentadienyl (c-C5H5) radical isomers of C5H5 are produced, with substantially different intensities at 800 K vs 1000 K. In agreement with literature master equation calculations, we find that c-C5H5 + C2H2 produces only the tropyl isomer of C7H7 (tp-C7H7) below 1000 K, and that tp-C7H7 + C2H2 terminates the reaction sequence yielding C9H8 (indene) + H. This work demonstrates a pathway for PAH formation that does not proceed through benzene.
The reaction of O(3P) + propyne (C3H4) was investigated at 298 K and 4 Torr using time-resolved multiplexed photoionization mass spectrometry and a synchrotron-generated tunable vacuum ultraviolet light source. The time-resolved mass spectra of the observed products suggest five major channels under our conditions: C2H3 + HCO, CH3 + HCCO, H + CH3CCO, C2H4 + CO, and C2H2 + H2 + CO. The relative branching ratios for these channels were found to be 1.00, (0.35 ± 0.11), (0.18 ± 0.10), (0.73 ± 0.27), and (1.31 ± 0.62). In addition, we observed signals consistent with minor production of C3H3 + OH and H2 + CH2CCO, although we cannot conclusively assign them as direct product channels from O(3P) + propyne. The direct abstraction mechanism plays only a minor role (≤1%), and we estimate that O(3P) addition to the central carbon of propyne accounts for 10% of products, with addition to the terminal carbon accounting for the remaining 89%. The isotopologues observed in experiments using d1-propyne (CH3CCD) and analysis of product branching in light of previously computed stationary points on the singlet and triplet potential energy surfaces (PESs) relevant to O(3P) + propyne suggest that, under our conditions, (84 ± 14)% of the observed product channels from O(3P) + propyne result from intersystem crossing from the initial triplet PES to the lower-lying singlet PES.
Low-temperature propane oxidation was studied at P = 4 Torr and T = 530, 600, and 670 K by time-resolved multiplexed photoionization mass spectrometry (MPIMS), which probes the reactants, intermediates, and products with isomeric selectivity using tunable synchrotron vacuum UV ionizing radiation. The oxidation is initiated by pulsed laser photolysis of oxalyl chloride, (COCl)2, at 248 nm, which rapidly generates a ∼1:1 mixture of 1-propyl (n-propyl) and 2-propyl (i-propyl) radicals via the fast Cl + propane reaction. At all three temperatures, the major stable product species is propene, formed in the propyl + O2 reactions by direct HO2 elimination from both n- and i-propyl peroxy radicals. The experimentally derived propene yields relative to the initial concentration of Cl atoms are (20 ± 4)% at 530 K, (55 ± 11)% at 600 K, and (86 ± 17)% at 670 K at a reaction time of 20 ms. The lower yield of propene at low temperature reflects substantial formation of propyl peroxy radicals, which do not completely decompose on the experimental time scale. In addition, C3H6O isomers methyloxirane, oxetane, acetone, and propanal are detected as minor products. Our measured yields of oxetane and methyloxirane, which are coproducts of OH radicals, suggest a revision of the OH formation pathways in models of low-temperature propane oxidation. The experimental results are modeled and interpreted using a multiscale informatics approach, presented in detail in a separate publication (Burke, M. P.; Goldsmith, C. F.; Klippenstein, S. J.; Welz, O.; Huang H.; Antonov I. O.; Savee J. D.; Osborn D. L.; Zádor, J.; Taatjes, C. A.; Sheps, L. Multiscale Informatics for Low-Temperature Propane Oxidation: Further Complexities in Studies of Complex Reactions. J. Phys. Chem A. 2015, DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.5b01003). The model predicts the time profiles and yields of the experimentally observed primary products well, and shows satisfactory agreement for products formed mostly via secondary radical-radical reactions.
The low-temperature oxidation of three cyclic ketones, cyclopentanone (CPO; C5H8O), cyclohexanone (CHO; C6H10O), and 2-methyl-cyclopentanone (2-Me-CPO; CH3-C5H7O), is studied between 550 and 700 K and at 4 or 8 Torr total pressure. Initial fuel radicals R are formed via fast H-abstraction from the ketones by laser-photolytically generated chlorine atoms. Intermediates and products from the subsequent reactions of these radicals in the presence of excess O2 are probed with time and isomeric resolution using multiplexed photoionization mass spectrometry with tunable synchrotron ionizing radiation. For CPO and CHO the dominant product channel in the R + O2 reactions is chain-terminating HO2-elimination yielding the conjugated cyclic coproducts 2-cyclopentenone and 2-cyclohexenone, respectively. Results on oxidation of 2-Me-CPO also show a dominant contribution from HO2-elimination. The photoionization spectrum of the co-product suggests formation of 2-methyl-2-cyclopentenone and/or 2-cyclohexenone, resulting from a rapid Dowd-Beckwith rearrangement, preceding addition to O2, of the initial (2-oxocyclopentyl)methyl radical to 3-oxocyclohexyl. Cyclic ethers, markers for hydroperoxyalkyl radicals (QOOH), key intermediates in chain-propagating and chain-branching low-temperature combustion pathways, are only minor products. The interpretation of the experimental results is supported by stationary point calculations on the potential energy surfaces of the associated R + O2 reactions at the CBS-QB3 level. The calculations indicate that HO2-elimination channels are energetically favored and product formation via QOOH is disfavored. The prominence of chain-terminating pathways linked with HO2 formation in low-temperature oxidation of cyclic ketones suggests little low-temperature reactivity of these species as fuels in internal combustion engines.
Time-resolved two-tone frequency modulation (TTFM) absorption spectroscopy has been used to measure, in situ and quantitatively, hydroperoxy (HO2) radical in fuel oxidation reactions at the first overtone transitions (2v1) of HO2 near 1509nm. Typical HO2 detection limit is on the order of 1011 molecule cm-3, which corresponds to a relative absorption of 10-5. TTFM method successfully removes low frequency thermal lensing noise in measured HO2 kinetic time traces, which is a general noise source in fuel oxidation absorption experiments. Compared with previous works, we have upgraded the TTFM experiment with a NIR distributed feedback (DFB) diode laser, a fiber-coupled broadband phase modulator, and a two-channel wave generator, which have improve the performance of our experiment substantially.
Garcia, Gustavo A.; Tang, Xiaofeng; Gil, Jean F.; Nahon, Laurent; Ward, Michael; Batut, Sebastien; Fittschen, Christa; Taatjes, Craig A.; Osborn, David L.; Loison, Jean C.
We present a microwave discharge flow tube coupled with a double imaging electron/ion coincidence device and vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) synchrotron radiation. The system has been applied to the study of the photoelectron spectroscopy of the well-known radicals OH and OD. The coincidence imaging scheme provides a high selectivity and yields the spectra of the pure radicals, removing the ever-present contributions from excess reactants, background, or secondary products, and therefore obviating the need for a prior knowledge of all possible byproducts. The photoelectron spectra encompassing the X3Σ- ground state of the OH+ and OD+ cations have been extracted and the vibrational constants compared satisfactorily to existing literature values. Future advantages of this approach include measurement of high resolution VUV spectroscopy of radicals, their absolute photoionization cross section, and species/isomer identification in chemical reactions as a function of time.
Oxidation of organic compounds in combustion and in Earth's troposphere is mediated by reactive species formed by the addition of molecular oxygen (O2) to organic radicals. Among the most crucial and elusive of these intermediates are hydroperoxyalkyl radicals, often denoted "QOOH." These species and their reactions with O2 are responsible for the radical chain branching that sustains autoignition and are implicated in tropospheric autoxidation that can form low-volatility, highly oxygenated organic aerosol precursors. We report direct observation and kinetics measurements of a QOOH intermediate in the oxidation of 1,3-cycloheptadiene, a molecule that offers insight into both resonance-stabilized and nonstabilized radical intermediates. The results establish that resonance stabilization dramatically changes QOOH reactivity and, hence, that oxidation of unsaturated organics can produce exceptionally long-lived QOOH intermediates.
The chlorine atom-initiated oxidation of two unsaturated primary C5 alcohols, prenol (3-methyl-2-buten-1-ol, (CH3)2CCHCH2OH) and isoprenol (3-methyl-3-buten-1-ol, CH2C(CH3)CH2CH2OH), is studied at 550 K and low pressure (8 Torr). The time- and isomer-resolved formation of products is probed with multiplexed photoionization mass spectrometry (MPIMS) using tunable vacuum ultraviolet ionizing synchrotron radiation. The peroxy radical chemistry of the unsaturated alcohols appears much less rich than that of saturated C4 and C5 alcohols. The main products observed are the corresponding unsaturated aldehydes - prenal (3-methyl-2-butenal) from prenol oxidation and isoprenal (3-methyl-3-butenal) from isoprenol oxidation. No significant products arising from QOOH chemistry are observed. These results can be qualitatively explained by the formation of resonance stabilized allylic radicals via H-abstraction in the Cl + prenol and Cl + isoprenol initiation reactions. The loss of resonance stabilization upon O2 addition causes the energies of the intermediate wells, saddle points, and products to increase relative to the energy of the initial radicals and O2. These energetic shifts make most product channels observed in the peroxy radical chemistry of saturated alcohols inaccessible for these unsaturated alcohols. The experimental findings are underpinned by quantum-chemical calculations for stationary points on the potential energy surfaces for the reactions of the initial radicals with O2. Under our conditions, the dominant channels in prenol and isoprenol oxidation are the chain-terminating HO2-forming channels arising from radicals, in which the unpaired electron and the -OH group are on the same carbon atom, with stable prenal and isoprenal co-products, respectively. These findings suggest that the presence of CC double bonds in alcohols will reduce low-temperature reactivity during autoignition.
Cymenes are monoterpene derivatives composed of a benzene ring with iso-propyl and methyl substituents, and the proximity of the two alkyl groups enables relevant analysis into the ortho-effect of polysubstituted aromatics, in which low-temperature autoignition is more facile for ortho-substitution. The initial steps of ROO-related reactions from Cl-initiated oxidation of ortho-, meta- and para-cymene were studied at low pressure (8 Torr) over the temperature range 450-750 K using multiplexed photoionization mass spectrometry (MPIMS). Ratios of cyclic ether formation (related to chain-propagation and OH formation) relative to HO2-loss (related to chain-termination) were measured to characterize the ortho-effect as a function of temperature. The main results are twofold: Cyclic ether measurements indicate significant chain-propagation below 700 K only in o-cymene oxidation; above 700 K, chain-propagation of the three cymene isomers converge.The competition between chain-propagation channels stemming from resonance- and non-resonance-stabilized initial cymene radicals changes significantly with temperature, with chain-propagation near 700 K arising predominantly from non-resonance-stabilized R radicals. Cyclic ether yields in m- and p-cymene oxidation are negligible below 650 K, indicating minimal chain-propagation. In contrast, o-cymene exhibits significant cyclic ether formation, attributed to the favorable 6- and 7-membered-ring transition states in the formation of hydroperoxyalkyl (QOOH) intermediates from peroxy radicals (ROO). The cyclic ether/HO2-loss ratio in o-cymene oxidation is defined as unity at 450 K and decreases to ∼0.10 at 700 K. The ratio converges to ∼0.10 at 700 K for the three cymene isomers, indicating an upper limit of temperature for the ortho-effect. Photoionization spectra of cyclic ether formation from o-cymene oxidation indicate a competition between both resonance- and non-resonance-stabilized initial radicals at the lower range of temperature. With increasing temperature, cyclic ether formation shifts from pathways involving resonance-stabilized initial radicals towards pathways solely from non-resonance-stabilized initial radicals because of back-dissociation of weakly bound ROO adducts.
Ketohydroperoxide formation in Cl-atom initiated low-temperature (550-700 K) oxidation of n-butane was investigated using a time-of-flight mass spectrometer and either tunable synchrotron radiation or a H2 discharge for photoionization. Experiments were performed at 1-2 atm pressure using a new high-pressure reactor and also at ∼5 Torr pressure for comparison. Direct kinetic observations of ketohydroperoxide formation qualitatively agree with previous atmospheric pressure jet-stirred reactor studies of Battin-Leclerc et al. (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 49 (2010) 3169-3172) where the maximum ketohydroperoxide signal was observed near 600 K. Oxidation of partially deuterated n-butanes provided additional information on the QOOH radical intermediates that proceed to form ketohydroperoxides. The photoionization spectrum of the observed ketohydroperoxide is independent of pressure and is the same when using different deuterium substituted n-butanes, suggesting that one ketohydroperoxide isomer dominates in n-butane oxidation. We conclude that 4-hydroperoxy-2-butyl + O2 is the main reaction leading to ketohydroperoxide and 3-hydroperoxybutanal is the sole ketohydroperoxide that is observed.
Carbonyl oxides, also known as Criegee intermediates, are key intermediates in both gas phase ozonolysis of unsaturated hydrocarbons in the troposphere and solution phase organic synthesis via ozonolysis. Although the study of Criegee intermediates in both arenas has a long history, direct studies in the gas phase have only recently become possible through new methods of generating stabilised Criegee intermediates in sufficient quantities. This advance has catalysed a large number of new experimental and theoretical investigations of Criegee intermediate chemistry. In this article we review the physical chemistry of Criegee intermediates, focusing on their molecular structure, spectroscopy, unimolecular and bimolecular reactions. These recent results have overturned conclusions from some previous studies, while confirming others, and have clarified areas of investigation that will be critical targets for future studies. In addition to expanding our fundamental understanding of Criegee intermediates, the rapidly expanding knowledge base will support increasingly predictive models of their impacts on society.
Product formation from R + O2 reactions relevant to low-temperature autoignition chemistry was studied for 2,5-dimethylhexane, a symmetrically branched octane isomer, at 550 and 650 K using Cl-atom initiated oxidation and multiplexed photoionization mass spectrometry (MPIMS). Interpretation of time- and photon-energy-resolved mass spectra led to three specific results important to characterizing the initial oxidation steps: (1) quantified isomer-resolved branching ratios for HO2 + alkene channels; (2) 2,2,5,5-tetramethyltetrahydrofuran is formed in substantial yield from addition of O2 to tertiary 2,5-dimethylhex-2-yl followed by isomerization of the resulting ROO adduct to tertiary hydroperoxyalkyl (QOOH) and exhibits a positive dependence on temperature over the range covered leading to a higher flux relative to aggregate cyclic ether yield. The higher relative flux is explained by a 1,5-hydrogen atom shift reaction that converts the initial primary alkyl radical (2,5-dimethylhex-1-yl) to the tertiary alkyl radical 2,5-dimethylhex-2-yl, providing an additional source of tertiary alkyl radicals. Quantum-chemical and master-equation calculations of the unimolecular decomposition of the primary alkyl radical reveal that isomerization to the tertiary alkyl radical is the most favorable pathway, and is favored over O2-addition at 650 K under the conditions herein. The isomerization pathway to tertiary alkyl radicals therefore contributes an additional mechanism to 2,2,5,5-tetramethyltetrahydrofuran formation; (3) carbonyl species (acetone, propanal, and methylpropanal) consistent with β-scission of QOOH radicals were formed in significant yield, indicating unimolecular QOOH decomposition into carbonyl + alkene + OH. (Chemical Equation Pesented).
Combined with a Herriott-type multi-pass slow flow reactor, high-resolution differential direct absorption spectroscopy has been used to probe, in situ and quantitatively, hydroxyl (OH), hydroperoxy (HO 2 ) and formaldehyde (CH 2 O) molecules in fuel oxidation reactions in the reactor, with a time resolution of about 1 micro-second. While OH and CH 2 O are probed in the mid-infrared (MIR) region near 2870nm and 3574nm respectively, HO 2 can be probed in both regions: near-infrared (NIR) at 1509nm and MIR at 2870nm. Typical sensitivities are on the order of 10 10 - 10 11 molecule cm -3 for OH at 2870nm, 10 11 molecule cm -3 for HO 2 at 1509nm, and 10 11 molecule cm -3 for CH 2 O at 3574nm. Measurements of multiple important intermediates (OH and HO 2 ) and product (CH 2 O) facilitate to understand and further validate chemical mechanisms of fuel oxidation chemistry.
Criegee intermediates are formed in the ozonolysis of alkenes and play an important role in indoor chemistry, notably as a source of OH radicals. Recent studies have shown that these Criegee intermediates react very quickly with NO2, SO2, and carbonyls, and in this study, steady-state calculations are used to inspect the potential impact of these data on indoor chemistry. It is shown that these reactions could accelerate NO3 formation and SO2 removal in the indoor environment significantly. In addition, reaction between Criegee intermediates and halogenated carbonyls could provide a significant loss process indoors, where currently one does not exist.
Increasing energy costs, the dependence on foreign oil supplies, and environmental concerns have emphasized the need to produce sustainable renewable fuels and chemicals. The strategy for producing next-generation biofuels must include efficient processes for biomass conversion to liquid fuels and the fuels must be compatible with current and future engines. Unfortunately, biofuel development generally takes place without any consideration of combustion characteristics, and combustion scientists typically measure biofuels properties without any feedback to the production design. We seek to optimize the fuel/engine system by bringing combustion performance, specifically for advanced next-generation engines, into the development of novel biosynthetic fuel pathways. Here we report an innovative coupling of combustion chemistry, from fundamentals to engine measurements, to the optimization of fuel production using metabolic engineering. We have established the necessary connections among the fundamental chemistry, engine science, and synthetic biology for fuel production, building a powerful framework for co-development of engines and biofuels.