Publications

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Current heliostats cost ∼$200/m2 of reflective area and are estimated to contribute up to 50% of the total solar power tower plant costs. A drastic overall cost reduction is required in order for concentrated solar thermal power to be economically viable. The Department of Energy has set forth the SunShot initiative targeting a levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of $0.06/kWh by the year 2020. The cost of each heliostat must be brought down to an estimated $75/m2 to achieve this rigorous goal. One of the driving aspects of heliostat design and cost are the heliostat optical errors. At the moment, it is relatively unclear about the amount of error that can be present in the system while still maintaining low cost and high optical accuracy. The optical errors present on heliostat mirror surfaces directly influence the plant LCOE by causing beam spillage. This can result in an increase in the number of heliostats, an increased receiver size, and decreased thermal efficiency. Assuming a fixed heliostat cost of $75/m2, the effects of optical errors on LCOE were evaluated within the software DELSOL. From a probabilistic analysis, beam quality errors (i.e., slope error, alignment errors, etc.) were shown to have more importance on the LCOE than tracking errors. This determination resulted in a realization that the tracking errors and beam quality errors could be combined into a "bundled" root-sum-square (RSS) error value and produce similar results in DELSOL. A "bundled" error value of 2 mrad resulted in an LCOE of $0.06/kWh. This "bundled" value was the basis for a new optical error budget and is decomposed into five individual errors. These five errors can be used as design specifications for new generation heliostats.

Heliostat optical performance can be affected by both wind and gravity induced deflections in the mirror support structure. These effects can result in decreased energy collection efficiency, depending on the magnitude of structural deflections, heliostat orientation and field position, and sun position. This paper presents a coupled modeling approach to evaluate the effects of gravity loading on heliostat optical performance, considering two heliostat designs: The National Solar Thermal Test Facility (NSTTF) heliostat and the Advanced Thermal Systems (ATS) heliostat. Deflections under gravitational loading were determined using finite element analysis (FEA) in ANSYS MECHANICAL, and the resulting deformed heliostat geometry was analyzed using Breault APEX optical engineering software to evaluate changes in beam size and shape. Optical results were validated against images of actual beams produced by each respective heliostat, measured using the Beam Characterization System (BCS) at Sandia National Laboratories. Simulated structural deflections in both heliostats were found to have visible impacts on beam shape, with small but quantifiable changes in beam power distribution. In this paper, the combined FEA and optical analysis method is described and validated, as well as a method for modeling heliostats subjected to gravitational deflection and canted in-field, for which mirror positions may not be known rigorously. Furthermore, a modified, generalized construction method is proposed and analyzed for the ATS heliostat, which was found to give consistent improvements in beam shape and up to a 4.1% increase in annual incident power weighted intercept (AIPWI).

Falling particle receivers are being evaluated as an alternative to conventional fluid-based solar receivers to enable higher temperatures and higher efficiency power cycles with direct storage for concentrating solar power applications. This paper presents studies of the particle mass flow rate, velocity, particle-curtain opacity and density, and other characteristics of free-falling ceramic particles as a function of different discharge slot apertures. The methods to characterize the particle flow are described, and results are compared to theoretical and numerical models for unheated conditions.

Closed-loop super-critical carbon dioxide (sCO2) Brayton cycles are being evaluated in combination with concentrating solar power to provide higher thermal-to-electric conversion efficiencies relative to conventional steam Rankine cycles. However, high temperatures (650-700°C) and pressures (20-25 MPa) are required in the solar receiver. In this study an extensive material review was performed along with a tube size optimization following the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and B31.1 and B313.3 codes respectively. Subsequently a thermal-structural model was developed using ANSYS Fluent and Structural to design and analyze the tubular receiver that could provide the heat input for a ∼2 MWth plant. The receiver will be required to provide an outlet temperature of 650°C (at 25 MPa) or 700°C (at 20 MPa). The induced thermal stresses were applied using a temperature gradient throughout the tube while a constant pressure load was applied on the inner wall. The resulting stresses have been validated analytically using constant surface temperatures. The cyclic loading analysis was performed using the Larson-Miller creep model in nCode Design Life to define the structural integrity of the receiver over the desired lifetime of ∼10,000 cycles. The results have shown that the stresses induced by the thermal and pressure load can be withstood by the tubes selected. The creep-fatigue analysis displayed the damage accumulation due to the cycling and the permanent deformation of the tubes. Nonetheless, they are able to support the required lifetime. As a result, a complete model to verify the structural integrity and thermal performance of a high temperature and pressure receiver has been developed. This work will serve as reference for future design and evaluation of future direct and indirect tubular receivers.

Cavity receivers used in solar power towers and dish concentrators may lose considerable energy by natural convection, which reduces the overall system efficiency. A validated numerical receiver model is desired to better understand convection processes and aid in heat loss minimization efforts. The purpose ofthis investigation was to evaluate heat loss predictions using the commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software packages fluent 13.0 and solidworks flow simulation 2011 against experimentally measured heat losses for a heated cubical cavity receiver model (Kraabel, 1983, "An Experimental Investigation of the Natural Convection From a Side-Facing Cubical Cavity," Proceedings of the ASME JSME Thermal Engineering Joint Conference, Vol. 1, pp. 299-306) and a cylindrical dish receiver model (Taumoefolau et al., 2004, "Experimental Investigation of Natural Convection Heat Loss From a Model Solar Concentrator Cavity Receiver," ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng., 126(2), pp. 801-807). Simulated convective heat loss was underpredicted by 45% for the cubical cavity when experimental wall temperatures were implemented as isothermal boundary conditions and 32% when the experimental power was applied as a uniform heat flux from the cavity walls. Agreement between software packages was generally within 10%. Convective heat loss from the cylindrical dish receiver model was accurately predicted within experimental uncertainties by both simulation codes using both isothermal and constant heat flux wall boundary conditions except when the cavity was inclined at angles below 15 deg and above 75 deg, where losses were under- and overpredicted by fluent and solidworks, respectively. Comparison with empirical correlations for convective heat loss from heated cavities showed that correlations by Kraabel (1983, "An Experimental Investigation of the Natural Convection From a Side-Facing Cubical Cavity," Proceedings ofthe ASME JSME Thermal Engineering Joint Conference, Vol. 1, pp. 299-306) and for individual heated flat plates oriented to the cavity geometry (Pitts and Sissom, 1998, Schaum's Outline of Heat Transfer, 2nd ed., McGraw Hill, New York, p. 227) predicted heat losses from the cubical cavity to within experimental uncertainties. Correlations by Clausing (1987, "Natural Convection From Isothermal Cubical Cavities With a Variety of Side-Facing Apertures," ASME J. Heat Transfer, 109(2), pp. 407-412) and Paitoonsurikarn et al. (2011, "Numerical Investigation of Natural Convection Loss From Cavity Receivers in Solar Dish Applications," ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng. 133(2), p. 021004) were able to do the same for the cylindrical dish receiver. No single correlation was valid for both experimental receivers. The effect ofdifferent turbulence and air-property models within fluent were also investigated and compared in this study. However, no model parameter was found to produce a change large enough to account for the deficient convective heat loss simulated for the cubical cavity receiver case.

Recent studies have evaluated closed-loop supercritical carbon dioxide (s-CO2) Brayton cycles to be a higher energydensity system in comparison to conventional superheated steam Rankine systems. At turbine inlet conditions of 923K and 25 MPa, high thermal efficiency (∼50%) can be achieved. Achieving these high efficiencies will make concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies a competitive alternative to current power generation methods. To incorporate a s-CO2 Brayton power cycle in a solar power tower system, the development of a solar receiver capable of providing an outlet temperature of 923 K (at 25 MPa) is necessary. The s-CO2 will need to increase in temperature by ∼200 K as it passes through the solar receiver to satisfy the temperature requirements of a s-CO2 Brayton cycle with recuperation and recompression. In this study, an optical-thermal-fluid model was developed to design and evaluate a tubular receiver that will receive a heat input ∼2 MWth from a heliostat field. The ray-tracing tool SolTrace was used to obtain the heat-flux distribution on the surfaces of the receiver. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling using the Discrete Ordinates (DO) radiation model was used to predict the temperature distribution and the resulting receiver efficiency. The effect of flow parameters, receiver geometry and radiation absorption by s-CO2 were studied. The receiver surface temperatures were found to be within the safe operational limit while exhibiting a receiver efficiency of ∼85%.

This paper evaluates cost and performance tradeoffs of alternative supercritical carbon dioxide (s-CO2) closed-loop Brayton cycle configurations with a concentrated solar heat source. Alternative s-CO2 power cycle configurations include simple, recompression, cascaded, and partial cooling cycles. Results show that the simple closed-loop Brayton cycle yielded the lowest power-block component costs while allowing variable temperature differentials across the s-CO2 heating source, depending on the level of recuperation. Lower temperature differentials led to higher sensible storage costs, but cycle configurations with lower temperature differentials (higher recuperation) yielded higher cycle efficiencies and lower solar collector and receiver costs. The cycles with higher efficiencies (simple recuperated, recompression, and partial cooling) yielded the lowest overall solar and power-block component costs for a prescribed power output.

Typical Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) central receiver power plants require the use of either an external or cavity receiver. Previous and current external receivers consist of a series of tubes connected to manifolds that form a cylindrical or rectangular shape such as in the cases of Solar One, Solar Two, and most recently the Ivanpah solar plant. These receivers operate at high surface temperatures (>600°C) at which point thermal re-radiation is significant. However, the geometric arrangement of these heat transfer tubes results in heat losses directly to the environment. This work focused on how to fundamentally reduce this heat loss through the manipulation of heat transfer tube configurations. Four receiver configurations are studied: flat receiver (base case study), a radial receiver with finned structures (fins arranged in a circular pattern on a cylinder), a louvered finned structure (horizontal and angled fins on a flat plate), and a vertical finned structure (fins oriented vertically along a flat plate). The thermal efficiency, convective heat loss patterns, and air flow around each receiver design is found using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code ANSYS FLUENT. Results presented in this paper show that alternative tubular configurations increase thermal efficiency by increasing the effective solar absorptance of these hightemperature receivers by increasing the light trapping effects of the receiver, reducing thermal emittance to the environment, and reducing the overall size of the receiver. Each receiver configuration has finned structures that take advantage of the directional dependence of the heliostat field resulting in a light trapping effect on the receiver. The finned configurations tend to lead to "hot" regions on the receiver, but the new configurations can take advantage of high local view factors (each surface can "see" another receiver surface) in these regions through the use of heat transfer fluid (HTF) flow patterns. The HTF reduces the temperatures in these regions increasing the efficiency of heat transfer to the fluid. Finally, the new receiver configurations have a lower overall optical intercept region resulting in a higher geometric concentration ratio for the receiver. Compared to the base case analysis (flat plate receiver), the novel tubular geometries results showed an increase in thermal efficiency.

This paper establishes the design requirements for the development and testing of direct supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO2) solar receivers. Current design considerations are based on the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC). Section I (BPVC) considers typical boilers/superheaters (i.e. fired pressure vessels) which work under a constant low heat flux. Section VIII (BPVC) considers pressure vessels with operating pressures above 15 psig [2 bar] (i.e. unfired pressure vessels). Section III, Division I - Subsection NH (BPVC) considers a more detailed stress calculation, compared to Section I and Section VIII, and requires a creep-fatigue analysis. The main drawback from using the BPVC exclusively is the large safety requirements developed for nuclear power applications. As a result, a new set of requirements is needed to perform detailed thermal-structural analyses of solar thermal receivers subjected to a spatially-varying, high-intensity heat flux. The last design requirements document of this kind was an interim Sandia report developed in 1979 (SAND79-8183), but it only addresses some of the technical challenges in early-stage steam and molten-salt solar receivers but not the use of sCO2 receivers. This paper presents a combination of the ASME BPVC and ASME B31.1 Code modified appropriately to achieve the reliability requirements in sCO2 solar power systems. There are five main categories in this requirements document: Operation and Safety, Materials and Manufacturing, Instrumentation, Maintenance and Environmental, and General requirements. This paper also includes the modeling guidelines and input parameters required in computational fluid dynamics and structural analyses utilizing ANSYS Fluent, ANSYS Mechanical, and nCode Design Life. The main purpose of this document is to serve as a reference and guideline for design and testing requirements, as well as to address the technical challenges and provide initial parameters for the computational models that will be employed for the development of sCO2 receivers.

Traditional tubular receivers used in concentrating solar power are formed using tubes connected to manifolds to form panels; which in turn are arranged in cylindrical or rectangular shapes. Previous and current tubular receivers, such as the ones used in Solar One, Solar Two, and most recently the Ivanpah solar plants, have used a black paint coating to increase the solar absorptance of the receiver. However, these coatings degrade over time and must be reapplied, increasing the receiver maintenance cost. This paper presents the thermal efficiency evaluation of novel receiver tubular panels that have a higher effective solar absorptance due to a light-trapping effect created by arranging the tubes in each panel into unique geometric configurations. Similarly, the impact of the incidence angle on the effective solar absorptance and thermal efficiency is evaluated. The overarching goal of this work is to achieve effective solar absorptances of ∼90% and thermal efficiencies above 85% without using an absorptance coating. Several panel geometries were initially proposed and were down-selected based on structural analyses considering the thermal and pressure loading requirements of molten salt and supercritical carbon-dioxide receivers. The effective solar absorptance of the chosen tube geometries and panel configurations were evaluated using the ray-tracing modeling capabilities of SolTrace. The thermal efficiency was then evaluated by coupling computational fluid dynamics with the ray-tracing results using ANSYS Fluent. Compared to the base case analysis (flat tubular panel), the novel tubular panels have shown an increase in effective solar absorptance and thermal efficiency by several percentage points.

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Concentrating solar power receivers are comprised of panels of tubes arranged in a cylindrical or cubical shape on top of a tower. The tubes contain heat-transfer fluid that absorbs energy from the concentrated sunlight incident on the tubes. To increase the solar absorptance, black paint or a solar selective coating is applied to the surface of the tubes. However, these coatings degrade over time and must be reapplied, which reduces the system performance and increases costs. This paper presents an evaluation of novel receiver shapes and geometries that create a light-trapping effect, thereby increasing the effective solar absorptance and efficiency of the solar receiver. Several prototype shapes were fabricated from Inconel 718 and tested in Sandiaas solar furnace at an irradiance of ∼30 W/cm2. Photographic methods were used to capture the irradiance distribution on the receiver surfaces. The irradiance profiles were compared to results from raytracing models. The effective solar absorptance was also evaluated using the ray-tracing models. Results showed that relative to a flat plate, the new geometries could increase the effective solar absorptance from 86% to 92% for an intrinsic material absorptance of 86%, and from 60% to 73% for an intrinsic material absorptance of 60%.

Standard glass and polymer covers on photovoltaic modules can partially reflect the sunlight causing glint and glare. Glint and glare from large photovoltaic installations can be significant and have the potential to create hazards for motorists, air-traffic controllers and pilots flying near installations. In this work, the reflectance, surface roughness and reflected solar beam spread were measured from various photovoltaic modules acquired from seven different manufacturers. The surface texturing of the PV modules varied from smooth to roughly textured. Correlations between the measured surface texturing (roughness parameters) and beam spread (subtended angle) were determined. These correlations were then used to assess surface texturing effects on transmittance and ocular impacts of glare from photovoltaic module covers. The results can be used to drive the designs for photovoltaic surface texturing to improve transmittance and minimize glint/glare.

A 7.2 kW radiative solar simulator was designed in order to perform accelerated testing on absorber materials for concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies. Computer-aided design (CAD) software integrating a ray-tracing tool was used to select appropriate components and optimize their positioning in order to achieve the desired concentration. The simulator comprises four identical units, each made out of an ellipsoidal reflector, a metal halide lamp and an adjustable holding system. A single unit was characterized and shows an experimental average irradiance of 257 kW m-2 on a 25.4 mm (1 inch) diameter spot. Shape, spot size and average irradiance are in good agreement with the model predictions. The innovative four-lamp solar simulator potentially demonstrates peak irradiance of 1140 kW m-2 and average irradiance of 878 kW m-2 over a 25.4 mm diameter spot. The costs per radiative and electric watt are calculated at $2.31 W?1 and $1.99 W?1, respectively.

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A new metric has been developed to evaluate and compare selective absorber coatings for concentrating solar power applications. Previous metrics have typically considered the performance of the selective coating (i.e., solar absorptance and thermal emittance), but cost and durability were not considered. This report describes the development of the levelized cost of coating (LCOC), which is similar to the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) commonly used to evaluate alternative energy technologies. The LCOC is defined as the ratio of the annualized cost of the coating (and associated costs such as labor and number of heliostats required) to the average annual thermal energy produced by the receiver. The baseline LCOC using Pyromark 2500 paint was found to be %240.055/MWht, and the distribution of LCOC values relative to this baseline were determined in a probabilistic analysis to range from -%241.6/MWht to %247.3/MWht, accounting for the cost of additional (or fewer) heliostats required to yield the same baseline average annual thermal energy produced by the receiver. A stepwise multiple rank regression analysis showed that the initial solar absorptance was the most significant parameter impacting the LCOC, followed by thermal emittance, degradation rate, reapplication interval, and downtime during reapplication.

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