Publications

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Spark-ignition (SI) engine efficiency is typically limited by fuel auto-ignition resistance, which is described in practice by the Research Octane Number (RON) and the Motor Octane Number (MON). The goal of this work is to assess whether fuel properties (i.e. RON, MON, and heat of vaporization) are sufficient to describe the antiknock behavior of varying gasoline formulations in modern engines. To this end, the auto-ignition resistance of three compositionally dissimilar gasoline-like fuels with identical RON values and varying or non-varying MON values were evaluated in a modern, prototype, 12:1 compression ratio, high-swirl (by nature of intake valve deactivation), directly injected spark ignition (DISI) engine at 1400 RPM. The three gasolines are an alkylate blend (RON=98, MON=97), a blend with high aromatic content (RON=98, MON=88), and a blend of 30% ethanol by volume with a gasoline BOB (RON=98, MON=87; see Table 2 for details). The preliminary findings of this work are that RON and MON, when coupled with latent heat of vaporization information, are sufficient to describe the auto-ignition resistance of a fuel to a degree such that knock-limited combustion phasing shows no measurable differences. While the tested fuels yielded no inconsistencies between their ratings (RON and MON) and properties (latent heat of vaporization) and their performance in a DISI engine, measurable differences were found among the three tested fuels. Specifically, the manner in which the fuels obtained knock-resistance varied, be it through thermal tolerance, charge cooling, or lack of charge-heating Low-Temperature Heat Release (LTHR). In addition, the fuels’ knock-limited combustion phasing responses to variations in intake pressure and intake temperature varied with their thermal tolerance and tendency towards LTHR. Yet these dissimilar behaviors combine to produce similar anti-knock qualities and engine performance for naturally-aspirated operation.

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Fundamental engine research is primarily conducted under steady-state conditions, in order to better describe boundary conditions which influence the studied phenomena. However, light-duty automobiles are operated, and tested, under heavily transient conditions. This mismatch between studied conditions and in-use conditions is deemed acceptable due to the fundamental knowledge gained from steady-state experiments. Nonetheless, it is useful to characterize the conditions encountered during transient operation and determine if the governing phenomena are unduly influenced by the differences between steady-state and transient operation, and further, whether transient behavior can be reasonably extrapolated from steady-state behavior. The transient operation mode used in this study consists of 20 fired cycles followed by 80 motored cycles, operating on a continuous basis. The intention of the cycle is to provide a significant transient condition, namely the change from motored to knock-limited fired operation, while also maintaining a repeatable cycle that allows for the collection of statistics during quasi- steady-state operation. This study investigates the effect of transient operation on Knock-Limited Combustion Phasing (KL-CA50) compared to steady-state operation. Three compositionally dissimilar matched Research Octane Number (RON) = 98 fuels are used in this study, allowing for the assessment of fuel-specific effects on differences between steady-state and transient operation. This study first characterizes the 20/80 firing cycle described above, before comparing the transient KL-CA50 measurements to the steady-state KL-CA50 measurements. Analysis of both the steady-state and transient results are used to gain insights into the effects of transient operation on end-gas autoignition, relative to steady-state operation and as a function of fuel composition. The results of this study indicate the significant effect that transient operation has on KL-CA50 behavior of a fuel. This is both universal, in that all fuels show responses to the differences in compression temperatures of the charge, as well as fuel specific, in that the fuel response varies based on the fuel's sensitivity to temperature, [O2], and trace species. All fuels showed a significant load extension under transient operation, based on tolerance of higher intake pressures. However, transient operation moved operating conditions to "beyond RON" (Octane Index K < 0) conditions, which favored higher-sensitivity fuels. Based on the analysis of system time constants (e.g. cylinder head temperature dynamic response, exhaust gas temperature dynamic response), it is expected that transient operation, and the benefits for knock-limited operation, are highly influential on drive-cycle performance.

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Implementation of spray-guided stratified-charge direct-injection spark-ignited (DISI) engines is inhibited by the occurrence of misfire and partial burns. Engine-performance tests demonstrate that increasing engine speed induces combustion instability, but this deterioration can be prevented by generating swirling flow during the intake stroke. In-cylinder pressure-based heat-release analysis reveals that the appearance of poor-burn cycles is not solely dependent on the variability of early flame-kernel growth. Cycles can experience burning-rate regression during later combustion stages and may or may not recover before the end of the cycle. Thermodynamic analysis and optical diagnostics are used here to clarify why swirl improves the combustion repeatability from cycle to cycle.The fluid dynamics of swirl/spray interaction was previously demonstrated using high-speed PIV measurements of in-cylinder motored flow. It was found that the sprays of the multi-hole injector redistribute the intake-generated swirl flow momentum, thereby creating a better-centered higher angular-momentum vortex with reduced variability. The engine operation with high swirl was found to have significant improvement in cycle-to-cycle variations of both flow pattern and flow momentum.This paper is an extension of the previous work. Here, PIV measurements and flame imaging are applied to fired operation for studying how the swirl flow affects variability of ignition and subsequent combustion phases. PIV results for fired operation are consistent with the measurements made of motored flow. They demonstrate that the spark-plasma motion is highly correlated with the direction of the gas flow in the vicinity of the spark-plug gap. Without swirl, the plasma is randomly stretched towards either side of the spark plug, causing variability in the ignition of the two spray plumes that are straddling the spark plug. In contrast, swirl flow always convects the spark plasma towards one spray plume, causing a more repeatable ignition. The swirl decreases local RMS velocity, consistent with an observed reduction of early-burn variability. Broadband flame imaging demonstrates that with swirl, the flame consistently propagates in multiple directions to consume fuel-air mixtures within the piston bowl. In contrast, operation without swirl displays higher variability of flame-spread patterns, occasionally causing the appearance of partial-burn cycles.

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Well-mixed lean or dilute SI engine operation can provide efficiency improvements relative to that of traditional well-mixed stoichiometric SI operation. However, the realized gains depend on the ability to ensure stable, complete and fast combustion. In this work, the influence of fuel type is examined for gasoline, E30 and E85. Several enabling techniques are compared. For enhanced ignition stability, a multi-pulse (MP) transient plasma ignition system is compared to a conventional high-energy inductive spark ignition system. Combined effects of fuel type and intake-gas preheating are examined. Also, the effects of dilution type (air or N2-simulated EGR) on lean efficiency gains and stability limits are clarified. The largest efficiency improvement is found for lean gasoline operation using intake preheating, showing the equivalent of a 20% fuel-economy gain relative to traditional non-dilute stoichiometric operation. The reason for gasoline’s larger efficiency improvement is its lower octane number which facilitates the use of end-gas autoignition to produce mixed-mode combustion. For these conditions, such mixed-mode combustion is required for rapid completion of the inherently slow lean combustion event prior to piston expansion. The fuel-economy gains are somewhat smaller for both E30 and E85 because of higher resistance to end-gas autoignition under lean conditions. To avoid knocking cycles when mixed-mode combustion is used, the deflagration-based combustion must be very repeatable to ensure consistent compression of the end-gas reactants. Multi-pulse transient plasma ignition is used beneficially to stabilize the combustion, especially for dilute operation which suffers from low flame speeds. However, even with an enhanced ignition system, the best fuel-economy gains of dilute stoichiometric operation with mixed-mode combustion are on the order of 11-12%, which is substantially less than for lean operation.

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Climate change and the need to secure energy supplies are two reasons for a growing interest in engine efficiency and alternative fuels. This project contributes to the science-base needed by industry to develop highly efficient DISI engines that also beneficially exploit the different properties of alternative fuels. Our emphasis is on lean operation, which can provide higher efficiencies than traditional non-dilute stoichiometric operation. Since lean operation can lead to issues with ignition stability, slow flame propagation and low combustion efficiency, we focus on techniques that can overcome these challenges. Specifically, fuel stratification is used to ensure ignition and completeness of combustion but has soot- and NOx- emissions challenges. For ultralean well-mixed operation, turbulent deflagration can be combined with controlled end-gas auto-ignition to render mixed-mode combustion that facilitates high combustion efficiency. However, the response of both combustion and exhaust emissions to these techniques depends on the fuel properties. Therefore, to achieve optimal fuel-economy gains, the engine combustion-control strategies must be adapted to the fuel being utilized.

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Modern spark-ignition (SI) engine technologies have considerably changed in-cylinder conditions under which fuel autoignition and engine knock take place. In this paper, fundamental HCCI engine experiments are proposed as a means for characterizing the impact of these technologies on the knock propensity of different fuels. In particular, the impacts of turbocharging, direct injection (DI), and downspeeding on operation with ethanol and gasoline are investigated to demonstrate this approach. Results reported earlier for ethanol and gasoline on HCCI combustion are revisited with the new perspective of how their autoignition characteristics fit into the anti-knock requirement in modern SI engines. For example, the weak sensitivity to pressure boost demonstrated by ethanol in HCCI autoignition can be used to explain the strong knock resistance of ethanol fuels for turbocharged SI engines. Further, ethanol's high sensitivity to charge temperature makes charge cooling, which can be produced by fuel vaporization via direct injection or by piston expansion via spark-timing retard, very effective for inhibiting knock. On the other hand, gasoline autoignition shows a higher sensitivity to pressure, so only very low pressure boost can be applied before knock occurs. Gasoline also demonstrates low temperature sensitivity, so it is unable to make as effective use of the charge cooling produced by fuel vaporization or spark retard. These arguments comprehensively explain literature results on ethanol's substantially better anti-knock performance over gasoline in modern turbocharged DISI engines. Fundamental HCCI experiments such as these can thus be used as a diagnostic and predictive tool for knock-limited SI engine performance for various fuels. Examples are presented where HCCI experiments are used to identify biofuel compounds with good potential for modern SI-engine applications.

This study investigates combustion variability of a stratified-charge direct-injection spark ignited (DISI) engine, operated with near-TDC injection of E70 fuel and a spark timing that occurs during the early part of the fuel injection. Using EGR, low engine-out NOx can be achieved, but at the expense of increased combustion variability at higher engine speeds. Initial motored tests at different speeds reveal that the in-cylinder gas flow becomes sufficiently strong at 2000 rpm to cause significant cycle-to-cycle variations of the spray penetration. Hence, the fired tests focus on operation at 2000 rpm with N2 dilution ([O2] = 19% and 21%) to simulate EGR. In-cylinder flow, spray, and early-flame measurements are correlated to reveal their effect on the combustion variability. Results reveal two types of flow/spray-interactions that predict the likelihood of a partial burn. (1) Proper flow direction before injection with a more collapsed spray leads to high kinetic energy of the flow during injection, thus generating a rapid early burn, which ensures complete combustion, regardless of the EGR level. (2) Improper flow direction and less collapsed spray generate low flow energy during the early phase of combustion. For this second type of flow/spray-interaction, application of EGR results in a partial-burn frequency of 30%, whereas without EGR, early combustion is shown to be insensitive to flow variations. Flame-probability maps illustrate that the partial-burn cycles for operation with EGR have a weak flame development in that the flame does not develop uniformly and reliably from the spark plug. Without EGR, the flame development is more repeatable regardless of the type of flow/spray-interaction, at the expense of higher NOx emissions.

Due to concerns about future petroleum supply and accelerating climate change, increased engine efficiency and alternative fuels are of interest. This project contributes to the science-base needed by industry to develop highly efficient DISI engines that also beneficially exploit the different properties of alternative fuels. Lean operation is studied since it can provide higher efficiencies than traditional non-dilute stoichiometric operation. Since lean operation can lead to issues with ignition stability, slow flame propagation and low combustion efficiency, focus is on techniques that can overcome these challenges. Specifically, fuel stratification can be used to ensure ignition and completeness of combustion, but may lead to soot and NO_x emissions challenges. Advanced ignition system and intake air preheating both promote ignition stability. Controlled end-gas autoignition can be used maintain high combustion efficiency for ultra-lean well-mixed conditions. However, the response of both combustion and exhaust emission to these techniques depends on the fuel properties. Therefore, to achieve optimal fuel-economy gains, the combustion-control strategies of the engine must adopt to the fuel being utilized.

Well-mixed lean SI engine operation can provide improvements of the fuel economy relative to that of traditional well-mixed stoichiometric SI operation. This work examines the use of two methods for improving the stability of lean operation, namely multi-pulse transient plasma ignition and intake air preheating. These two methods are compared to standard SI operation using a conventional high-energy inductive ignition system without intake air preheating. E85 is the fuel chosen for this study. The multi-pulse transient plasma ignition system utilizes custom electronics to generate 10 kHz bursts of 10 ultra-short (12ns), high-amplitude pulses (200 A). These pulses were applied to a custom spark plug with a semi-open ignition cavity. High-speed imaging reveals that ignition in this cavity generates a turbulent jet-like early flame spread that speeds up the transition from ignition to the main combustion event. Performance testing shows that lean operation with heated intake air enables a 17% improvement of fuel economy at ϕ = 0.59 for both ignition systems, relative to that of stoichiometric operation. Moreover, multi-pulse transient plasma ignition offers more stable ultra-lean operation, with IMEPn variability less than 5% down to ϕ = 0.49. The ability to operate stably at such lean conditions is attributed to a more stable flame initiation offered by both the increased charge temperature and the multi-pulse transient plasma ignition that allows a later spark timing due to the very fast transition to fully turbulent deflagration.

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In a companion study [1], experimental observations in a stratified-charge DISI engine operated with late injection of E70 led to the formation of two hypotheses: (1) For highly stratified spray-guided combustion, the heat-release rate of the main combustion phase is primarily controlled by mixing rates and turbulence level associated with fuel-jet penetration. (2) During the main combustion phase, the role of the in-cylinder flow field generated by the intake and compression strokes is primarily its stochastic disturbance of the mixing and flow associated with the fuel jets, thereby causing cycle-to-cycle variations of the spray-guided stratified combustion. Here, these hypotheses are tested. An optical engine was operated skip fired at 1000 and 2000 rpm, and exhibited the same combustion properties observed in the steady-state all-metal engine tests. High-speed particle image velocimetry (PIV) and spray imaging are used to quantify the intake-generated in-cylinder flow momentum, the spray induced momentum, and the resulting liquid spray variability. The PIV measurements reveal that the spatially-averaged gas-flow speed (momentum) without injection at 2000 rpm is twice that of 1000 rpm. In contrast, just after injection the gas flow spatial average speed at 2000 rpm is only 24% higher due to the dominance of spray momentum. This is comparable to the 16% increase of the measured ensemble-averaged heat-release rate (in kW). The cyclic variability of the in-cylinder flow speed prior to injection is measured to be considerably higher at 2000 rpm compared to 1000 rpm. Though the injected liquid spray reduced the flow-speed cyclic-variability after injection, the higher variability did persist. The spray imaging reveals that the increased flow-speed variability at 2000 rpm causes increased variability of the spray jet trajectory, jet coalescence, and spray rotation from cycle to cycle. This work supports both the hypotheses that motivated this study. Copyright © 2014 SAE International.

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Ethanol and ethanol/gasoline blends are being widely considered as alternative fuels for light-duty automotive applications. At the same time, HCCI combustion has the potential to provide high efficiency and ultra-low exhaust emissions. However, the application of HCCI is typically limited to low and moderate loads because of unacceptably high heat-release rates (HRR) at higher fueling rates. This work investigates the potential of lowering the HCCI HRR at high loads by using partial fuel stratification to increase the in-cylinder thermal stratification. This strategy is based on ethanol's high heat of vaporization combined with its true single-stage ignition characteristics. Using partial fuel stratification, the strong fuel-vaporization cooling produces thermal stratification due to variations in the amount of fuel vaporization in different parts of the combustion chamber. The low sensitivity of the autoignition reactions to variations of the local fuel concentration allows the temperature variations to govern the combustion event. This results in a sequential autoignition event from leaner and hotter zones to richer and colder zones, lowering the overall combustion rate compared to operation with a uniform fuel/air mixture. The amount of partial fuel stratification was varied by adjusting the fraction of fuel injected late to produce stratification, and also by changing the timing of the late injection. The experiments show that a combination of 60 -70% premixed charge and injection of 30 -40 % of the fuel at 80°CA before TDC is effective for smoothing the HRR. With CA50 held fixed, this increases the burn duration by 55% and reduces the maximum pressure-rise rate by 40%. Combustion stability remains high but engine-out NO x has to be monitored carefully. For operation with strong reduction of the peak HRR, ISNO x rises to around 0.20 g/kWh for an IMEP g of 440 kPa. The single-cylinder HCCI research engine was operated naturally aspirated without EGR at 1200 rpm, and had low residual level using a CR = 14 piston. © 2011 Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan, Inc. and SAE International.

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Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) combustion with fully premixed charge is severely limited at high-load operation due to the rapid pressure-rise rates (PRR) which can lead to engine knock and potential engine damage. Recent studies have shown that two-stage ignition fuels possess a significant potential to reduce the combustion heat release rate, thus enabling higher load without knock. This study focuses on three factors, engine speed, intake temperature, and fuel composition, that can affect the pre-ignition processes of two-stage fuels and consequently affect their performance with partial fuel stratification. A model fuel consisting of 73 vol.% isooctane and 27 vol.% of n-heptane (PRF73), which was previously compared against neat isooctane to demonstrate the superior performance of two-stage fuels over single-stage fuels with partial fuel stratification, was first used to study the effects of engine speed and intake temperature. The results for PRF73 show that increasing engine speed from 1200 to 1600 rpm causes almost no change in φ-sensitivity, which is defined by the advancement of combustion phasing for an increase in equivalence ratio. Consequently, the maximum combustion pressure rise rate (PRRmax) can be reduced substantially with partial fuel stratification at this higher speed as it was at 1200 rpm. In contrast, increasing intake temperature from 60°C to 174°C eliminates the low temperature heat release of PRF73. Despite the single-stage ignition at this temperature, PRF73 still shows a weak but definitive φ-sensitivity, likely due to the relatively strong intermediate temperature heat release before hot ignition. As a result, PRR max was reduced modestly with partial fuel stratification. This PRF73 result is distinctively different from that of isooctane at the same intake temperature. To study the importance of fuel composition, PRF73 is compared with a low-octane, gasoline-like distillate fuel, termed Hydrobate, which could be readily produced from petroleum feedstocks. With the similar HCCI reactivity to PRF73, Hydrobate shows little difference in φ-sensitivity and performs similarly with partial fuel stratification compared to PRF73. This result indicates that it is the overall fuel HCCI reactivity, rather than the exact fuel composition, that determines the φ-sensitivity and the consequent performance with partial fuel stratification. © 2011 SAE International.

Ethanol and ethanol/gasoline blends are being widely considered as alternative fuels for light-duty automotive applications. At the same time, HCCI combustion has the potential to provide high efficiency and ultra-low exhaust emissions. However, the application of HCCI is typically limited to low and moderate loads because of unacceptably high heat-release rates (HRR) at higher fueling rates. This work investigates the potential of lowering the HCCI HRR at high loads by using partial fuel stratification to increase the in-cylinder thermal stratification. This strategy is based on ethanol's high heat of vaporization combined with its true single-stage ignition characteristics. Using partial fuel stratification, the strong fuel-vaporization cooling produces thermal stratification due to variations in the amount of fuel vaporization in different parts of the combustion chamber. The low sensitivity of the autoignition reactions to variations of the local fuel concentration allows the temperature variations to govern the combustion event. This results in a sequential autoignition event from leaner and hotter zones to richer and colder zones, lowering the overall combustion rate compared to operation with a uniform fuel/air mixture. The amount of partial fuel stratification was varied by adjusting the fraction of fuel injected late to produce stratification, and also by changing the timing of the late injection. The experiments show that a combination of 60-70% premixed charge and injection of 30-40 % of the fuel at 80{sup o}CA before TDC is effective for smoothing the HRR. With CA50 held fixed, this increases the burn duration by 55% and reduces the maximum pressure-rise rate by 40%. Combustion stability remains high but engine-out NO{sub x} has to be monitored carefully. For operation with strong reduction of the peak HRR, ISNO{sub x} rises to around 0.20 g/kWh for an IMEP{sub g} of 440 kPa. The single-cylinder HCCI research engine was operated naturally aspirated without EGR at 1200 rpm, and had low residual level using a CR = 14 piston.

The characteristics of ethanol autoignition and the associated HCCI performance are examined in this work. The experiments were conducted over wide ranges of engine speed, load and intake boost pressure (P in) in a single- cylinder HCCI research engine (0.98 liters) with a CR = 14 piston. The data show that pure ethanol is a true single-stage ignition fuel. It does not exhibit low-temperature heat release (LTHR), not even for boosted operation. This makes ethanol uniquely different from conventional distillate fuels and offers several benefits: a) The intake temperature (T in) does not have to be adjusted much with changes of engine speed, load and intake boost pressure. b) High P in can be tolerated without running out of control authority because of an excessively low T in requirement. However, by maintaining true single-stage ignition characteristics, ethanol also shows a relatively low temperature-rise rate just prior to its hot ignition point. Therefore, ethanol does not tolerate as much combustion-phasing retard as fuels that exhibit LTHR and/or pronounced intermediate-temperature heat release. Since combustion retard is important for avoiding excessive pressure-rise rates, the distinct single-stage ignition characteristic of ethanol can be considered a drawback when reaching for higher loads. Nonetheless, an IMEP g of 11.3 bar was demonstrated for P in = 247 kPa. Finally, the latest ethanol chemical-kinetics mechanism from the National University of Ireland - Galway was evaluated against the experimental engine data using a multi-zone model. Overall, the mechanism performs very well over wide ranges of operating conditions. © 2010 SAE International.

This work explores how the high-load limits of HCCI are affected by fuel autoignition reactivity, EGR quality/composition, and EGR unmixedness for naturally aspirated conditions. This is done for PRF80 and PRF60. The experiments were conducted in a singlecylinder HCCI research engine (0.98 liters) with a CR = 14 piston installed. By operating at successively higher engine loads, five load-limiting factors were identified for these fuels: 1) Residual-NOx-induced run-away advancement of the combustion phasing, 2) EGR-NOx- induced run-away, 3) EGR-NOx/wall-heating induced run-away 4) EGR-induced oxygen deprivation, and 5) excessive partial-burn occurrence due to EGR unmixedness. The actual load-limiting factor is dependent on the autoignition reactivity of the fuel, the EGR quality level (where high quality refers to the absence of trace species like NO, HC and CO, i.e. simulated EGR), the level of EGR unmixedness, and the selected pressurerise rate (PRR). For a reactive fuel like PRF60, large amounts of EGR are required to control the combustion phasing. Therefore, for operation with simulated EGR, the maximum IMEP becomes limited by the available oxygen. When real EGR (with trace species) is used instead of the simulated EGR, the maximum IMEP becomes limited by EGR-NOx/wall-heating induced runaway. For the moderately reactive PRF80 operated with simulated EGR, the maximum IMEP becomes limited by residual-NOx-induced run-away. Furthermore, operation with real EGR lowers the maximum steady IMEP because of EGR-NOx-induced run-away. This is similar to PRF60. Finally, the data show that EGR/fresh-gas unmixedness can lead to a substantial reduction of the maximum stable IMEP for operation with a low PRR. This happens because the EGR unmixedness causes occasional partial-burn cycles due to excessive combustion-phasing retard for cycles that induct substantially higher-thanaverage level of EGR gases.