The testing effect refers to the benefits to retention that result from structuring learning activities in the form of a test. As educators consider implementing test-enhanced learning paradigms in real classroom environments, we think it is critical to consider how an array of factors affecting test-enhanced learning in laboratory studies bear on test-enhanced learning in real-world classroom environments. As such, this review discusses the degree to which test feedback, test format (of formative tests), number of tests, level of the test questions, timing of tests (relative to initial learning), and retention duration have import for testing effects in ecologically valid contexts (e.g., classroom studies). Attention is also devoted to characteristics of much laboratory testing-effect research that may limit translation to classroom environments, such as the complexity of the material being learned, the value of the testing effect relative to other generative learning activities in classrooms, an educational orientation that favors criterial tests focused on transfer of learning, and online instructional modalities. We consider how student-centric variables present in the classroom (e.g., cognitive abilities, motivation) may have bearing on the effects of testing-effect techniques implemented in the classroom. We conclude that the testing effect is a robust phenomenon that benefits a wide variety of learners in a broad array of learning domains. Still, studies are needed to compare the benefit of testing to other learning strategies, to further characterize how individual differences relate to testing benefits, and to examine whether testing benefits learners at advanced levels.
The critical cyber-infrastructure of the United States is under a constant barrage of attacks. Adversaries (foreign and domestic) attack the nation’s systems in order to test their design and limits; to steal information (spy); to damage the system; and embed malware which can be deployed at a later time. The ability of the United States’ military and federal civilian departments to detect, delay, and respond to these attacks is essential to our national security. Identifying the best personnel to place in these critical occupations requires understanding the knowledge, skills, abilities and other factors (KSAOs) necessary to successfully complete important job tasks. It is also beneficial to understand the cognitive aspects of the job and when cognitive load is too high; when cognitive fatigue is setting in; and how these affect job performance. These factors are identified and measured by Industrial-Organizational (I-O) psychologists using the methods of job analysis and cognitive task analysis.