We present an overview of the magneto-inertial fusion (MIF) concept Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion (MagLIF) pursued at Sandia National Laboratories and review some of the most prominent results since the initial experiments in 2013. In MagLIF, a centimeter-scale beryllium tube or 'liner' is filled with a fusion fuel, axially pre-magnetized, laser pre-heated, and finally imploded using up to 20 MA from the Z machine. All of these elements are necessary to generate a thermonuclear plasma: laser preheating raises the initial temperature of the fuel, the electrical current implodes the liner and quasi-adiabatically compresses the fuel via the Lorentz force, and the axial magnetic field limits thermal conduction from the hot plasma to the cold liner walls during the implosion. MagLIF is the first MIF concept to demonstrate fusion relevant temperatures, significant fusion production (>1013 primary DD neutron yield), and magnetic trapping of charged fusion particles. On a 60 MA next-generation pulsed-power machine, two-dimensional simulations suggest that MagLIF has the potential to generate multi-MJ yields with significant self-heating, a long-term goal of the US Stockpile Stewardship Program. At currents exceeding 65 MA, the high gains required for fusion energy could be achievable.
The Z Machine at Sandia National Laboratories uses current pulses with peaks up to 27 MA to drive target implosions and generate high energy density conditions of interest for stockpile stewardship programs pertinent to the NNSA program portfolio . Physical processes in the region near the Z Machine target create electrode plasmas which seed parasitic current loss that reduce the performance and output of a Z experiment. Electrode surface contaminants (hydrogen, water, hydrocarbons) are thought to be the primary constituent of electrode plasmas which contribute to loss mechanisms. The Sandia team explore d in situ heating and plasma discharge techniques by integrating requisite infrastructure into Sandia's Mykonos LTD accelerator, addressing potential impacts to accelerator operation, and reporting on the impact of these techniques on electrode plasma formation and shot performance. The in situ discharge cleaning utilizes the electrodes of the accelerator to excite an argon-oxygen plasma to sputter and chemically react contaminants from electrode surfaces. Insulating breaks are required to isolate the plasma in electrode regions where loss processes are most likely to occur. The shots on Mykonos validate that these breaks do not perturb experiment performance, reducing the uncertainty on the largest unknown about the in situ cleaning system. Preliminary observations with electrical and optical diagnostics suggest that electrode plasma formation is delayed, and overall inventory has been substantively reduced. In situ heating embeds cartridge heaters into accelerator electrodes and employs a thermal bakeout to rapidly desorb contaminants from electrode surfaces. For the first time, additively manufactured (AM) electrode assemblies were used on a low impedance accelerator to integrate cooling channels and manage thermal gradients. Challenges with poor supplier fabrication to specifications, load alignment, thermal expansion and hardware movement and warpage appears to have introduced large variability in observed loss, though, preventing strong assertions of loss reduction via in situ heating. At this time, an in situ discharge cleaning process offers the lowest risk path to reduce electrode contaminant inventories on Z, though we recommend continuing to develop both approaches. Additional engineering and testing are required to improve the implementation of both systems. .
X-ray radiography has been used to diagnose a wide variety of experiments at the Z facility including inertial confinement fusion capsule implosions, the growth of the magneto-Rayleigh-Taylor instability in solid liners, and the development of helical structures in axially magnetized liner implosions. In these experiments, the Z Beamlet laser (1 kJ, 1 ns) was used to generate the x-ray source. An alternate x-ray source is desirable in experiments where the Z Beamlet laser is used for another purpose (e.g., preheating the fuel in magnetized liner inertial fusion experiments) or when multiple radiographic lines of sight are necessary.
We present an overview of the design and development of optical self-emission and debris imaging diagnostics for the Z Machine at Sandia National Laboratories. These diagnostics were designed and implemented to address several gaps in our understanding of visibly emitting phenomenon on Z and the post-shot debris environment. Optical emission arises from plasmas that form on the transmission line that delivers energy to Z loads and on the Z targets themselves; however, the dynamics of these plasmas are difficult to assess without imaging data. Addressing this, we developed a new optical imager called SEGOI (Self-Emission Gated Optical Imager) that leverages the eight gated optical imagers and two streak cameras of the Z Line VISAR system. SEGOI is a low cost, side-on imager with a 1 cm field of view and 30-50 µm spatial resolution, sensitive to green light (540-600 nm). This report outlines the design considerations and development of this diagnostic and presents an overview of the first diagnostic data acquired from four experimental campaigns. SEGOI was fielded on power flow experiments to image plasmas forming on and between transmission lines, on an inertial confinement fusion experiment called the Dynamic Screw Pinch to image low density plasmas forming on return current posts, on an experiment designed to measure the magneto Rayleigh-Taylor instability to image the instability bubble trajectory and self-emission structures, and finally on a Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion (MagLIF) experiment to image the emission from the target. The second diagnostic developed, called DINGOZ (Debris ImagiNG on Z), was designed to improve our understanding of the post-shot debris environment. DINGOZ is an airtight enclosure that houses electronics and batteries to operate a high-speed (10-400 kfps) camera in the Z Machine center section. We report on the design considerations of this new diagnostic and present the first high-speed imaging data of the post-shot debris environment on Z.
The inductively driven transmission line (IDTL) is a miniature current-carrying device that passively couples to fringe magnetic fields in the final power feed on the Z Pulsed Power Facility. The IDTL redirects a small amount of Z's magnetic energy along a secondary path to ground, thereby enabling pulsed power diagnostics to be driven in parallel with the primary load for the first time. IDTL experiments and modeling presented here indicate that IDTLs operate non-perturbatively on Z and that they can draw in excess of 150 kA of secondary current, which is enough to drive an X-pinch backlighter. Additional experiments show that IDTLs are also capable of making cleaner, higher-fidelity measurements of the current flowing in the final feed.
We present experimental results from the first systematic study of performance scaling with drive parameters for a magnetoinertial fusion concept. In magnetized liner inertial fusion experiments, the burn-averaged ion temperature doubles to 3.1 keV and the primary deuterium-deuterium neutron yield increases by more than an order of magnitude to 1.1×1013 (2 kJ deuterium-tritium equivalent) through a simultaneous increase in the applied magnetic field (from 10.4 to 15.9 T), laser preheat energy (from 0.46 to 1.2 kJ), and current coupling (from 16 to 20 MA). Individual parametric scans of the initial magnetic field and laser preheat energy show the expected trends, demonstrating the importance of magnetic insulation and the impact of the Nernst effect for this concept. A drive-current scan shows that present experiments operate close to the point where implosion stability is a limiting factor in performance, demonstrating the need to raise fuel pressure as drive current is increased. Simulations that capture these experimental trends indicate that another order of magnitude increase in yield on the Z facility is possible with additional increases of input parameters.
The Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion concept (MagLIF) [Slutz et al., Phys. Plasmas 17, 056303 (2010)] is being studied on the Z facility at Sandia National Laboratories. Neutron yields greater than 1012 have been achieved with a drive current in the range of 17-18 MA and pure deuterium fuel [Gomez et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 113, 155003 (2014)]. We show that 2D simulated yields are about twice the best yields obtained on Z and that a likely cause of this difference is the mix of material into the fuel. Mitigation strategies are presented. Previous numerical studies indicate that much larger yields (10-1000 MJ) should be possible with pulsed power machines producing larger drive currents (45-60 MA) than can be produced by the Z machine [Slutz et al., Phys. Plasmas 23, 022702 (2016)]. To test the accuracy of these 2D simulations, we present modifications to MagLIF experiments using the existing Z facility, for which 2D simulations predict a 100-fold enhancement of MagLIF fusion yields and considerable increases in burn temperatures. Experimental verification of these predictions would increase the credibility of predictions at higher drive currents.
Auto-magnetizing (AutoMag) liners [Slutz et al., Phys. Plasmas 24, 012704 (2017)] are designed to generate up to 100 T of axial magnetic field in the fuel for Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion [Slutz et al., Phys. Plasmas 17, 056303 (2010)] without the need for external field coils. AutoMag liners (cylindrical tubes) are composed of discrete metallic helical conduction paths separated by electrically insulating material. Initially, helical current in the AutoMag liner produces internal axial magnetic field during a long (100 to 300 ns) current prepulse with an average current rise rate d I / d t = 5 k A / n s. After the cold fuel is magnetized, a rapidly rising current (200 k A / n s) generates a calculated electric field of 64 M V / m between the helices. Such field is sufficient to force dielectric breakdown of the insulating material after which liner current is reoriented from helical to predominantly axial which ceases the AutoMag axial magnetic field production mechanism and the z-pinch liner implodes. Proof of concept experiments have been executed on the Mykonos linear transformer driver to measure the axial field produced by a variety of AutoMag liners and to evaluate what physical processes drive dielectric breakdown. A range of field strengths have been generated in various cm-scale liners in agreement with magnetic transient simulations including a measured field above 90 T at I = 350 kA. By varying the helical pitch angle, insulator material, and insulator geometry, favorable liner designs have been identified for which breakdown occurs under predictable and reproducible field conditions.
We have developed a physics-based transmission-line-circuit model of the Z pulsed-power accelerator. The 33-m-diameter Z machine generates a peak electrical power as high as 85 TW, and delivers as much as 25 MA to a physics load. The circuit model is used to design and analyze experiments conducted on Z. The model consists of 36 networks of transmission-line-circuit elements and resistors that represent each of Zs 36 modules. The model of each module includes a Marx generator, intermediate-energy-storage capacitor, laser-triggered gas switch, pulse-forming line, self-break water switches, and tri-plate transmission lines. The circuit model also includes elements that represent Zs water convolute, vacuum insulator stack, four parallel outer magnetically insulated vacuum transmission lines (MITLs), double-post-hole vacuum convolute, inner vacuum MITL, and physics load. Within the vacuum-transmission-line system the model conducts analytic calculations of current loss. To calculate the loss, the model simulates the following processes: (i) electron emission from MITL cathode surfaces wherever an electric-field threshold has been exceeded; (ii) electron loss in the MITLs before magnetic insulation has been established; (iii) flow of electrons emitted by the outer-MITL cathodes after insulation has been established; (iv) closure of MITL anode-cathode (AK) gaps due to expansion of cathode plasma; (v) energy loss to MITL conductors operated at high lineal current densities; (vi) heating of MITL-anode surfaces due to conduction current and deposition of electron kinetic energy; (vii) negative-space-charge-enhanced ion emission from MITL anode surfaces wherever an anode-surface-temperature threshold has been exceeded; and (viii) closure of MITL AK gaps due to expansion of anode plasma. The circuit model is expected to be most accurate when the fractional current loss is small. We have performed circuit simulations of 52 Z experiments conducted with a variety of accelerator configurations and load-impedance time histories. For these experiments, the apparent fractional current loss varies from 0% to 20%. Results of the circuit simulations agree with data acquired on 52 shots to within 2%.
Many experiments on Sandia National Laboratories' Z Pulsed Power Facility - a 30 MA, 100 ns rise-time, pulsed-power driver - use a monochromatic quartz crystal backlighter system at 1.865 keV (Si Heα) or 6.151 keV (Mn Heα) x-ray energy to radiograph an imploding liner (cylindrical tube) or wire array z-pinch. The x-ray source is generated by the Z-Beamlet laser, which provides two 527-nm, 1 kJ, 1-ns laser pulses. Radiographs of imploding, thick-walled beryllium liners at convergence ratios CR above 15 [CR=ri(0)/ri(t)] using the 6.151-keV backlighter system were too opaque to identify the inner radius ri of the liner with high confidence, demonstrating the need for a higher-energy x-ray radiography system. Here, we present a 7.242 keV backlighter system using a Ge(335) spherical crystal with the Co Heα resonance line. This system operates at a similar Bragg angle as the existing 1.865 keV and 6.151 keV backlighters, enhancing our capabilities for two-color, two-frame radiography without modifying the system integration at Z. The first data taken at Z include 6.2-keV and 7.2-keV two-color radiographs as well as radiographs of low-convergence (CR about 4-5), high-areal-density liner implosions.
A cryogenically cooled hardware platform has been developed and commissioned on the Z Facility at Sandia National Laboratories in support of the Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion (MagLIF) Program. MagLIF is a magneto-inertial fusion concept that employs a magnetically imploded metallic tube (liner) to compress and inertially confine premagnetized and preheated fusion fuel. The fuel is preheated using a ∼2 kJ laser that must pass through a ∼1.5-3.5-μm-thick polyimide "window" at the target's laser entrance hole (LEH). As the terawatt-class laser interacts with the dense window, laser plasma instabilities (LPIs) can develop, which reduce the preheat energy delivered to the fuel, initiate fuel contamination, and degrade target performance. Cryogenically cooled targets increase the parameter space accessible to MagLIF target designs by allowing nearly 10 times thinner windows to be used for any accessible gas density. Thinner LEH windows reduce the deleterious effects of difficult to model LPIs. The Z Facility's cryogenic infrastructure has been significantly altered to enable compatibility with the premagnetization and fuel preheat stages of MagLIF. The MagLIF cryostat brings the liquid helium coolant directly to the target via an electrically resistive conduit. This design maximizes cooling power while allowing rapid diffusion of the axial magnetic field supplied by external Helmholtz-like coils. A variety of techniques have been developed to mitigate the accumulation of ice from vacuum chamber contaminants on the cooled LEH window, as even a few hundred nanometers of ice would impact laser energy coupling to the fuel region. The MagLIF cryostat has demonstrated compatibility with the premagnetization and preheat stages of MagLIF and the ability to cool targets to liquid deuterium temperatures in approximately 5 min.
The MagLIF (Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion) concept [Slutz et al., Phys. Plasmas 17, 056303 (2010)] has demonstrated fusion-relevant plasma conditions [Gomez et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 113, 155003 (2014)] on the Z accelerator using external field coils to magnetize the fuel before compression. We present a novel concept (AutoMag), which uses a composite liner with helical conduction paths separated by insulating material to provide fuel magnetization from the early part of the drive current, which by design rises slowly enough to avoid electrical breakdown of the insulators. Once the magnetization field is established, the drive current rises more quickly, which causes the insulators to break down allowing the drive current to follow an axial path and implode the liner in the conventional z-pinch manner. There are two important advantages to AutoMag over external field coils for the operation of MagLIF. Low inductance magnetically insulated power feeds can be used to increase the drive current, and AutoMag does not interfere with diagnostic access. Also, AutoMag enables a pathway to energy applications for MagLIF, since expensive field coils will not be damaged each shot. Finally, it should be possible to generate Field Reversed Configurations (FRC) by using both external field coils and AutoMag in opposite polarities. This would provide a means to studying FRC liner implosions on the 100 ns time scale.
Double-shell Ar gas puff implosions driven by 16.5 ± 0.5 MA on the Z generator at Sandia National Laboratories are very effective emitters of Ar K-shell radiation (photon energy >3 keV), producing yields of 330 ± 9% kJ [B. Jones et al., Phys. Plasmas 22, 020706 (2015)]. Previous simulations and experiments have reported dramatic increases in K-shell yields when adding an on-axis jet to double shell gas puffs for some configurations. We report on a series of experiments on Z testing Ar gas puff configurations with and without an on-axis jet guided by 3D magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) simulations. Adding an on-axis jet was found to significantly improve the performance of some, but not all, configurations. The maximum observed K-shell yield of 375 ± 9% kJ was produced with a configuration that rapidly imploded onto an on-axis jet. A dramatic difference was observed in the plasma conditions at stagnation when a jet was used, producing a narrower stagnation column in experiments with a higher density but relatively lower electron temperature. The MHD simulations accurately reproduce the experimental measurements. The conversion efficiency for electrical energy delivered to the load to K-shell x-rays is estimated to be ∼12.5% for the best-performing configuration, similar to the best results from experiments at smaller facilities.
Magneti zed Liner Inerti al Fusion (MagLIF ) is an inertial confinement fusion (ICF) concept that includes a strong magnetic field embedded in the fuel to mitigate thermal conduction loss during the implosion . MagLIF experiments on Sandia's 20 MA Z Machine uses an external Helmholtz - like coil pair for fuel premagnetization . By contrast, t he novel AutoMag concept employs a composite liner (cylindrical tube) with helically oriented conduction paths separated by insulating material to provide axial premagnetization of the fuel . Initially, during a current prepulse that slowly rises to %7E1 MA, current flows helically through the AutoMag liner , and so urces the fuel with an axial field . Next, a rapidly rising main current pulse breaks down the insulation and current in th e liner becomes purely axial. The liner and premagnetized fuel are then compressed by the rapidly growing azimuthal field external to t he liner. This integrated axial - field - production mechanism offers a few potential advantages when compared to the externa l premagnetization coils. AutoMag can increase drive current to MagLIF experiments by enabling a lower inductance transmission line , provide higher premagnetization field (>30 T), and greatly increase radial x - ray diagnostic access. 3D electromagnetic si mulations using ANSYS Maxwell have been completed in order to explore the current distributions within the helical conduction paths, the inter - wire dielectric strength properties, and the thermal properties of the helical conduction paths during premagneti zation (%7E1 MA in 100ns). Th ree liner designs , of varying peak field strength, and associated varying risk of dielectric breakdown, will soon be tested in experiments on the %7E 1 MA, 100ns Mykonos facility. Experiments will measure B z (t) inside of the line r and assess failure mechanisms.
Several magnetized liner inertial fusion (MagLIF) experiments have been conducted on the Z accelerator at Sandia National Laboratories since late 2013. Measurements of the primary DD (2.45 MeV) neutrons for these experiments suggest that the neutron production is thermonuclear. Primary DD yields up to 3e12 with ion temperatures ∼2-3 keV have been achieved. Measurements of the secondary DT (14 MeV) neutrons indicate that the fuel is significantly magnetized. Measurements of down-scattered neutrons from the beryllium liner suggest ρRliner∼1g/cm2. Neutron bang times, estimated from neutron time-of-flight (nTOF) measurements, coincide with peak x-ray production. Plans to improve and expand the Z neutron diagnostic suite include neutron burn-history diagnostics, increased sensitivity and higher precision nTOF detectors, and neutron recoil-based yield and spectral measurements.
We report on the progress made to date for a Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) project aimed at diagnosing magnetic flux compression on the Z pulsed-power accelerator (0-20 MA in 100 ns). Each experiment consisted of an initially solid Be or Al liner (cylindrical tube), which was imploded using the Z accelerator's drive current (0-20 MA in 100 ns). The imploding liner compresses a 10-T axial seed field, B z ( 0 ) , supplied by an independently driven Helmholtz coil pair. Assuming perfect flux conservation, the axial field amplification should be well described by B z ( t ) = B z ( 0 ) x [ R ( 0 ) / R ( t )] 2 , where R is the liner's inner surface radius. With perfect flux conservation, B z ( t ) and dB z / dt values exceeding 10 4 T and 10 12 T/s, respectively, are expected. These large values, the diminishing liner volume, and the harsh environment on Z, make it particularly challenging to measure these fields. We report on our latest efforts to do so using three primary techniques: (1) micro B-dot probes to measure the fringe fields associated with flux compression, (2) streaked visible Zeeman absorption spectroscopy, and (3) fiber-based Faraday rotation. We also mention two new techniques that make use of the neutron diagnostics suite on Z. These techniques were not developed under this LDRD, but they could influence how we prioritize our efforts to diagnose magnetic flux compression on Z in the future. The first technique is based on the yield ratio of secondary DT to primary DD reactions. The second technique makes use of the secondary DT neutron time-of-flight energy spectra. Both of these techniques have been used successfully to infer the degree of magnetization at stagnation in fully integrated Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion (MagLIF) experiments on Z [P. F. Schmit et al. , Phys. Rev. Lett. 113 , 155004 (2014); P. F. Knapp et al. , Phys. Plasmas, 22 , 056312 (2015)]. Finally, we present some recent developments for designing and fabricating novel micro B-dot probes to measure B z ( t ) inside of an imploding liner. In one approach, the micro B-dot loops were fabricated on a printed circuit board (PCB). The PCB was then soldered to off-the-shelf 0.020- inch-diameter semi-rigid coaxial cables, which were terminated with standard SMA connectors. These probes were recently tested using the COBRA pulsed power generator (0-1 MA in 100 ns) at Cornell University. In another approach, we are planning to use new multi-material 3D printing capabilities to fabricate novel micro B-dot packages. In the near future, we plan to 3D print these probes and then test them on the COBRA generator. With successful operation demonstrated at 1-MA, we will then make plans to use these probes on a 20-MA Z experiment.
By varying current-loss circuit parameters, the Mach2-tabular collisional radiative equilibrium 2-D radiation magnetohydrodynamic model was tuned to reproduce the radiative and electrical properties of three recent argon gas-puff experiments (same initial conditions) performed on the Z machine at Sandia National Laboratories. The model indicates that there were current losses occurring near or within the diode region of the Z machine during the stagnation phase of the implosion. The 'good' simulation reproduces the experimental K-shell powers, K-shell yields, total powers, percentage of emission radiated in α lines, size of the K-shell emission region, and the average electron temperature near the time-of-peak K-shell power. The calculated atomic populations, ion temperatures, and radial velocities are used as input to a detailed multifrequency ray-trace radiation transport model that includes the Doppler effect. This model is employed to construct time-, space-, and energy-resolved synthetic spectra. The role the Doppler effect likely plays in the experiments is demonstrated by comparing synthetic spectra generated with and without this effect.
Large diameter multi-shell gas puffs rapidly imploded by high current (∼20 MA, ∼100ns) on the Z generator of Sandia National Laboratories are able to produce high-intensity Krypton K-shell emission at ∼13keV. Efficiently radiating at these high photon energies is a significant challenge which requires the careful design and optimization of the gas distribution. To facilitate this, we hydrodynamically model the gas flow out of the nozzle and then model its implosion using a 3-dimensional resistive, radiative MHD code (GORGON). This approach enables us to iterate between modeling the implosion and gas flow from the nozzle to optimize radiative output from this combined system. Guided by our implosion calculations, we have designed gas profiles that help mitigate disruption from Magneto-Rayleigh-Taylor implosion instabilities, while preserving sufficient kinetic energy to thermalize to the high temperatures required for K-shell emission.
Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion experiments performed at Sandia's Z facility have demonstrated significant thermonuclear fusion neutron yields (∼1012 DD neutrons) from multi-keV deuterium plasmas inertially confined by slow (∼10 cm/μs), stable, cylindrical implosions. Effective magnetic confinement of charged fusion reactants and products is signaled by high secondary DT neutron yields above 1010. Analysis of extensive power, imaging, and spectroscopic x-ray measurements provides a detailed picture of ∼3 keV temperatures, 0.3 g/cm3 densities, gradients, and mix in the fuel and liner over the 1-2 ns stagnation duration.
The magnetized liner inertial fusion concept [S. A. Slutz et al., Phys. Plasmas 17, 056303 (2010)] utilizes a magnetic field and laser heating to relax the pressure requirements of inertial confinement fusion. The first experiments to test the concept [M. R. Gomez et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 113, 155003 (2014)] were conducted utilizing the 19 MA, 100-ns Z machine, the 2.5-kJ, 1 TW Z Beamlet laser, and the 10-T Applied B-field on Z system. Despite an estimated implosion velocity of only 70-km/s in these experiments, electron and ion temperatures at stagnation were as high as 3-keV, and thermonuclear deuterium-deuterium neutron yields up to 2-×-1012 have been produced. X-ray emission from the fuel at stagnation had widths ranging from 50 to 110 μm over a roughly 80% of the axial extent of the target (6-8-mm) and lasted approximately 2-ns. X-ray yields from these experiments are consistent with a stagnation density of the hot fuel equal to 0.2-0.4-g/cm3. In these experiments, up to 5-×-1010 secondary deuterium-tritium neutrons were produced. Given that the areal density of the plasma was approximately 1-2-mg/cm2, this indicates the stagnation plasma was significantly magnetized, which is consistent with the anisotropy observed in the deuterium-tritium neutron spectra. Control experiments where the laser and/or magnetic field were not utilized failed to produce stagnation temperatures greater than 1-keV and primary deuterium-deuterium yields greater than 1010. An additional control experiment where the fuel contained a sufficient dopant fraction to substantially increase radiative losses also failed to produce a relevant stagnation temperature. The results of these experiments are consistent with a thermonuclear neutron source.
The standard approaches to inertial confinement fusion (ICF) rely on implosion velocities greater than 300 km/s and spherical convergence to achieve the high fuel temperatures (T > 4 keV) and areal densities (ρr > 0.3 g/cm2) required for ignition1. Such high velocities are achieved by heating the outside surface of a spherical capsuleeither directly with a large number of laser beams (Direct Drive) or with x-rays generated within a hohlraum (Indirect Drive). A much more energetically efficient approach is to use the magnetic pressure generated by a pulsed power machine to directly drive an implosion. In this approach 5-10% of the stored energy can be converted to the implosion of a metal tube generally referred to as a “liner”. However, the implosion velocity is not very high 70-100 km/s and the convergence is cylindrical (rather than spherical) making it more difficult to achieve the high temperatures and areal densities needed for ignition.
Argon gas puffs have produced 330kJ ± 9% of x-ray radiation above 3keV photon energy in fast z-pinch implosions, with remarkably reproducible K-shell spectra and power pulses. This reproducibility in x-ray production is particularly significant in light of the variations in instability evolution observed between experiments. Soft x-ray power measurements and K-shell line ratios from a time-resolved spectrum at peak x-ray power suggest that plasma gradients in these high-mass pinches may limit the K-shell radiating mass, K-shell power, and K-shell yield from high-current gas puffs.
Sandia has successfully integrated the capability to apply uniform, high magnetic fields (10-30 T) to high energy density experiments on the Z facility. This system uses an 8-mF, 15-kV capacitor bank to drive large-bore (5 cm diameter), high-inductance (1-3 mH) multi-turn, multi-layer electromagnets that slowly magnetize the conductive targets used on Z over several milliseconds (time to peak field of 2-7 ms). This system was commissioned in February 2013 and has been used successfully to magnetize more than 30 experiments up to 10 T that have produced exciting and surprising physics results. These experiments used split-magnet topologies to maintain diagnostic lines of sight to the target. We describe the design, integration, and operation of the pulsed coil system into the challenging and harsh environment of the Z Machine. We also describe our plans and designs for achieving fields up to 20 T with a reduced-gap split-magnet configuration, and up to 30 T with a solid magnet configuration in pursuit of the Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion concept.
This Letter presents results from the first fully integrated experiments testing the magnetized liner inertial fusion concept [S.A. Slutz et al., Phys. Plasmas 17, 056303 (2010)], in which a cylinder of deuterium gas with a preimposed axial magnetic field of 10 T is heated by Z beamlet, a 2.5 kJ, 1 TW laser, and magnetically imploded by a 19 MA current with 100 ns rise time on the Z facility. Despite a predicted peak implosion velocity of only 70 km/s, the fuel reaches a stagnation temperature of approximately 3 keV, with Te ≈ Ti, and produces up to 2e12 thermonuclear DD neutrons. In this study, X-ray emission indicates a hot fuel region with full width at half maximum ranging from 60 to 120 μm over a 6 mm height and lasting approximately 2 ns. The number of secondary deuterium-tritium neutrons observed was greater than 1010, indicating significant fuel magnetization given that the estimated radial areal density of the plasma is only 2 mg/cm2.
The refurbished Z machine at Sandia National Laboratories has been successfully configured to drive gas-puff Z pinches. A series of experiments using Ar loads produced K-shell yields of 330 ± 9% kJ, with highly reproducible K-shell spectra and power pulses. Using spectroscopic and power data, we are able to constrain the properties of both the cold, non-K-shell radiating mass as well as the hot K-shell component of the pinch plasma. As in previous gas-puff shots on the original version of Z, only about 1/4 to 1/3 of the load mass was heated to temperatures sufficient to produce K-shell x-rays.
Novel experimental data are reported that reveal helical instability formation on imploding z -pinch liners that are premagnetized with an axial field. Such instabilities differ dramatically from the mostly azimuthally symmetric instabilities that form on unmagnetized liners. The helical structure persists at nearly constant pitch as the liner implodes. This is surprising since, at the liner surface, the azimuthal drive field presumably dwarfs the axial field for all but the earliest stages of the experiment. These fundamentally 3D results provide a unique and challenging test for 3D-magnetohydrodynamics simulations.
The recently developed Magnetically Applied Pressure-Shear (MAPS) experimental technique to measure material shear strength at high pressures on magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) drive pulsed power platforms was fielded on August 16, 2013 on shot Z2544 utilizing hardware set A0283A. Several technical and engineering challenges were overcome in the process leading to the attempt to measure the dynamic strength of NNSA Ta at 50 GPa. The MAPS technique relies on the ability to apply an external magnetic field properly aligned and time correlated with the MHD pulse. The load design had to be modified to accommodate the external field coils and additional support was required to manage stresses from the pulsed magnets. Further, this represents the first time transverse velocity interferometry has been applied to diagnose a shot at Z. All subsystems performed well with only minor issues related to the new feed design which can be easily addressed by modifying the current pulse shape. Despite the success of each new component, the experiment failed to measure strength in the samples due to spallation failure, most likely in the diamond anvils. To address this issue, hydrocode simulations are being used to evaluate a modified design using LiF windows to minimize tension in the diamond and prevent spall. Another option to eliminate the diamond material from the experiment is also being investigated.
Tests are ongoing to conduct ~20 MA z-pinch implosions on the Z accelerator at Sandia National Laboratory using Ar, Kr, and D2 gas puffs as the imploding loads. The relatively high cost of operations on a machine of this scale imposes stringent requirements on the functionality, reliability, and safety of gas puff hardware. Here we describe the development of a prototype gas puff system including the multiple-shell nozzles, electromagnetic drivers for each nozzle's valve, a UV pre-ionizer, and an inductive isolator to isolate the ~2.4 MV machine voltage pulse present at the gas load from the necessary electrical and fluid connections made to the puff system from outside the Z vacuum chamber. This paper shows how the assembly couples to the overall Z system and presents data taken to validate the functionality of the overall system.
A new experimental technique to measure material shear strength at high pressures has been developed for use on magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) drive pulsed power platforms. By applying an external static magnetic field to the sample region, the MHD drive directly induces a shear stress wave in addition to the usual longitudinal stress wave. Strength is probed by passing this shear wave through a sample material where the transmissible shear stress is limited to the sample strength. The magnitude of the transmitted shear wave is measured via a transverse VISAR system from which the sample strength is determined.
Inductive electromagnetic launchers, or coilguns, use discrete solenoidal coils to accelerate a coaxial conductive armature. To date, Sandia has been using an internally developed code, SLINGSHOT, as a point-mass lumped circuit element simulation tool for modeling coilgun behavior for design and verification purposes. This code has shortcomings in terms of accurately modeling gun performance under stressful electromagnetic propulsion environments. To correct for these limitations, it was decided to attempt to closely couple two Sandia simulation codes, Xyce and ALEGRA, to develop a more rigorous simulation capability for demanding launch applications. This report summarizes the modifications made to each respective code and the path forward to completing interfacing between them.