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Measurement of the Hugoniot and shock-induced phase transition stress in wrought 17-4 PH H1025 stainless steel

Journal of Applied Physics

Specht, Paul E.; Reinhart, William; Alexander, Charles S.

Uniaxial strain, reverse-ballistic impact experiments were performed on wrought 17-4 PH H1025 stainless steel, and the resulting Hugoniot was determined to a peak stress of 25 GPa through impedance matching to known standard materials. The measured Hugoniot showed evidence of a solid-solid phase transition, consistent with other martensitic Fe-alloys. The phase transition stress in the wrought 17-4 PH H1025 stainless steel was measured in a uniaxial strain, forward-ballistic impact experiment to be 11.4 GPa. Linear fits to the Hugoniot for both the low and high pressure phase are presented with corresponding uncertainty. The low pressure martensitic phase exhibits a shock velocity that is weakly dependent on the particle velocity, consistent with other martensitic Fe-alloys.

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Dynamic compression of TiO2to 221 GPa

Journal of Applied Physics

Duwal, Sakun D.; Root, Seth R.; Farfan, Bernardo G.; Reinhart, William D.; Alexander, Charles S.

The high-pressure dynamic response of titanium dioxide (TiO 2) is not only of interest because of its numerous industrial applications but also because of its structural similarities to silica (SiO 2). We performed plate impact experiments in a two-stage light gas gun, at peak stresses from 64 to 221 GPa to determine the TiO 2 response along the Hugoniot. The lower stress experiment at 64 GPa shows an elastic behavior followed by an elastic-plastic transition, whereas the high stress experiments above 64 GPa show a single wave structure. Previous shock studies have shown the presence of high-pressure phases (HPP) I (26 GPa) and HPP II (100 GPa); however, our data suggest that the HPP I phase is stable up to 150 GPa. Using a combination of data from our current study and our previous Z-data, we determine that TiO 2 likely melts on the Hugoniot at 157 GPa. Furthermore, our data confirm that TiO 2 is not highly incompressible as shown by a previous study.

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Thin film graded density impactors for high rate off-Hugoniot loading: Application to Ta strength

2019 15th Hypervelocity Impact Symposium, HVIS 2019

Brown, Justin L.; Adams, David P.; Alexander, Charles S.; Wise, Jack L.; Reinhart, William D.

Graded density impactors (GDIs) have long been of interest to provide off-Hugoniot loading capabilities for impact systems. We describe a new technique which utilizes sputter deposition to produce an approximately 40 µm-thick film containing alternating layers of Al and Cu. The thicknesses of the respective layers are adjusted to give an effective density gradient through the film. The GDIs were launched into samples of interest with a 2-stage light gas gun, and the resulting shock-ramp-release velocity profiles were measured over timescales of ~10 ns with a new velocimetry probe. Results are shown for the direct impact of the film onto a LiF window, which allows for the dynamic characterization of the GDI, as well as from impact onto a thin (~40 µm) sputtered Ta sample backed by a LiF window. These measurements were coupled into mesoscale numerical simulations to infer the strength of Ta at the high rate (107 s-1), and high pressure (1 MBar) conditions this unique capability provides. Initial results suggest this is a viable strength platform which fills a critical gap and aids in cross-platform comparisons with other high-pressure strength platforms.

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Numerical and experimental evaluations of a glass-epoxy composite material under high velocity oblique impacts

International Journal of Impact Engineering

Key, Christopher T.; Alexander, Charles S.

Composite materials are used as alternatives to conventional metallics in a multitude of applications including military ground vehicles, aircraft, space launch and re-entry vehicles and even personnel protection where weight savings are critical. In application, these materials are susceptible to high velocity impacts from various threats and it is essential that the response of these materials, under relevant conditions, be understood in order to provide optimized effective designs. This work details an on-going effort to validate the anisotropic multiple constituent model (MCM) within the CTH hydrocode. Within the CTH framework, the anisotropic MCM model is coupled with an equation of state (EOS) and provides continuum averaged stress and strain fields for each constituents (fiber and resin) of a composite microstructure from which progressive damage evaluations can be performed. In this paper we focus on recent validation efforts where woven S2/SC15 (glass/epoxy) composite panels were impacted with steel spheres at various impact velocities and angles of obliquity. The experimental testing was performed at the Shock Thermodynamics Applied Research (STAR) Facility at Sandia National Laboratories to provide data for further validation of the MCM model under oblique impact conditions. Oblique impacts result in stress fields which exercise the anisotropy of the strength model and the EOS coupling of the MCM model more robustly. Results are presented for both the CTH MCM model predictions and the experimental testing. The primary comparison metrics evaluated are the predicted and observed damage extent, overall damage pattern, and residual velocity of the projectile.

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Experimental Testing and Numerical Modeling of Ballistic Impact on S-2 Glass/SC15 Composites

Journal of Dynamic Behavior of Materials

Key, C.T.; Alexander, Charles S.

The work presented in this paper details both an experimental program and an associated numerical modeling effort to characterize and predict the ballistic response of S-2 glass/SC15 epoxy composite panels. The experimental program consisted of ¼ inch diameter soft carbon steel spheres impacting ¼ and ½ inch thick flat composite panels at velocities ranging from 220 to 1570 m/s. High speed cameras were used to capture the impact event and resulting residual velocity of the spheres for each test configuration. After testing, each panel was inspected both visually and with ultrasonic C-scan techniques to determine the extent and depth of damage imparted on the panel by the impactor. The numerical modeling efforts utilized the anisotropic multi-constituent composite model (MCM) within the CTH shock physics hydrocode. The MCM model allows for evaluation of damage at the constituent level through continuum averaged stress and strain fields. The model also accounts for the inherent coupling of the equation of state and strength response that occurs in anisotropic composite materials. Finally, the simulation results are compared against the experimentally measured residual velocity as a quantitative metric and against the measured damage extent and patterns as a qualitative metric. The comparisons show good agreement in residual velocity and damage extent.

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Dynamic shock response of an S2 glass/SC15 epoxy woven fabric composite material system

AIP Conference Proceedings

Key, Christopher T.; Alexander, Charles S.; Harstad, Eric N.; Schumacher, Shane C.

The use of S2 glass/SC15 epoxy woven fabric composite materials for blast and ballistic protection has been an area of on-going research over the past decade. In order to accurately model this material system within potential applications under extreme loading conditions, a well characterized and understood anisotropic equation of state (EOS) is needed. This work details both an experimental program and associated analytical modelling efforts which aim to provide better physical understanding of the anisotropic EOS behavior of this material. Experimental testing focused on planar shock impact tests loading the composite to peak pressures of 15 GPa in both the transverse and longitudinal orientations. Test results highlighted the anisotropic response of the material and provided a basis by which the associated numeric micromechanical investigation was compared. Results of the combined experimental and numerical modeling investigation provided insights into not only the constituent material influence on the composite response but also the importance of the plain weave microstructure geometry and the significance of the microstructural configuration.

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Application of a Computational Glass Model to the Shock Response of Soda-Lime Glass

Journal of Dynamic Behavior of Materials

Gorfain, Joshua E.; Key, Christopher T.; Alexander, Charles S.

This article details the implementation and application of the glass-specific computational constitutive model by Holmquist and Johnson (J Appl Mech 78:051003, 2011) to simulate the dynamic response of soda-lime glass under high rate and high pressure shock conditions. The predictive capabilities of this model are assessed through comparison of experimental data with numerical results from computations using the CTH shock physics code. The formulation of this glass model is reviewed in the context of its implementation within CTH. Using a variety of experimental data compiled from the open literature, a complete parameterization of the model describing the observed behavior of soda-lime glass is developed. Simulation results using the calibrated soda-lime glass model are compared to flyer plate and Taylor rod impact experimental data covering a range of impact and failure conditions spanning an order of magnitude in velocity and pressure. The complex behavior observed in the experimental testing is captured well in the computations, demonstrating the capability of the glass model within CTH.

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Evaluation of a strain based failure criterion for the multi-constituent composite model under shock loading

EPJ Web of Conferences

Key, Christopher T.; Schumacher, Shane C.; Alexander, Charles S.

This study details and demonstrates a strain-based criterion for the prediction of polymer matrix composite material damage and failure under shock loading conditions. Shock loading conditions are characterized by high-speed impacts or explosive events that result in very high pressures in the materials involved. These material pressures can reach hundreds of kbar and often exceed the material strengths by several orders of magnitude. Researchers have shown that under these high pressures, composites exhibit significant increases in stiffness and strength. In this work we summarize modifications to a previous stress based interactive failure criterion based on the model initially proposed by Hashin, to include strain dependence. The failure criterion is combined with the multi-constituent composite constitutive model (MCM) within a shock physics hydrocode. The constitutive model allows for decomposition of the composite stress and strain fields into the individual phase averaged constituent level stress and strain fields, which are then applied to the failure criterion. Numerical simulations of a metallic sphere impacting carbon/epoxy composite plates at velocities up to 1000 m/s are performed using both the stress and strain based criterion. These simulation results are compared to experimental tests to illustrate the advantages of a strain-based criterion in the shock environment.

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Pulsed-coil magnet systems for applying uniform 10-30 T fields to centimeter-scale targets on Sandia's Z facility

Review of Scientific Instruments

Rovang, Dean C.; Lamppa, Derek C.; Cuneo, M.E.; Owen, A.C.; Mckenney, John M.; Johnson, Drew J.; Radovich, S.; Kaye, Ronald J.; McBride, Ryan D.; Alexander, Charles S.; Awe, T.J.; Slutz, S.A.; Sefkow, Adam B.; Haill, Thomas A.; Jones, Peter A.; Argo, J.W.; Dalton, D.G.; Robertson, Grafton K.; Waisman, Eduardo M.; Sinars, Daniel S.; Meissner, J.; Milhous, M.; Nguyen, D.N.; Mielke, C.H.

Sandia has successfully integrated the capability to apply uniform, high magnetic fields (10-30 T) to high energy density experiments on the Z facility. This system uses an 8-mF, 15-kV capacitor bank to drive large-bore (5 cm diameter), high-inductance (1-3 mH) multi-turn, multi-layer electromagnets that slowly magnetize the conductive targets used on Z over several milliseconds (time to peak field of 2-7 ms). This system was commissioned in February 2013 and has been used successfully to magnetize more than 30 experiments up to 10 T that have produced exciting and surprising physics results. These experiments used split-magnet topologies to maintain diagnostic lines of sight to the target. We describe the design, integration, and operation of the pulsed coil system into the challenging and harsh environment of the Z Machine. We also describe our plans and designs for achieving fields up to 20 T with a reduced-gap split-magnet configuration, and up to 30 T with a solid magnet configuration in pursuit of the Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion concept.

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Improved understanding of the dynamic response in anisotropic directional composite materials through the combination of experiments and modeling

Journal of Physics: Conference Series

Alexander, Charles S.; Key, C.T.; Schumacher, Shane C.

Recently there has been renewed interest in the dynamic response of composite materials; specifically low density epoxy matrix binders strengthened with continuous reinforcing fibers. This is in part due to the widespread use of carbon fiber composites in military, commercial, industrial, and aerospace applications. The design community requires better understanding of these materials in order to make full use of their unique properties. Planar impact testing was performed resulting in pressures up to 15 GPa on a unidirectional carbon fiber - epoxy composite, engineered to have high uniformity and low porosity. Results illustrate the anisotropic nature of the response under shock loading. Along the fiber direction, a two-wave structure similar to typical elastic-plastic response is observed, however, when shocked transverse to the fibers, only a single bulk shock wave is detected. At higher pressures, the epoxy matrix dissociates resulting in a loss of anisotropy. Greater understanding of the mechanisms responsible for the observed response has been achieved through numerical modeling of the system at the micromechanical level using the CTH hydrocode. From the simulation results it is evident that the observed two-wave structure in the longitudinal fiber direction is the result of a fast moving elastic precursor wave traveling in the carbon fibers ahead of the bulk response in the epoxy resin. Similarly, in the transverse direction, results show a collapse of the resin component consistent with the experimental observation of a single shock wave traveling at speeds associated with bulk carbon. Experimental and simulation results will be discussed and used to show where additional mechanisms, not fully described by the currently used models, are present. © Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd.

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Fielding the magnetically applied pressure-shear technique on the Z accelerator (completion report for MRT 4519)

Alexander, Charles S.; Haill, Thomas A.; Dalton, Devon D.; Rovang, Dean C.; Lamppa, Derek C.

The recently developed Magnetically Applied Pressure-Shear (MAPS) experimental technique to measure material shear strength at high pressures on magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) drive pulsed power platforms was fielded on August 16, 2013 on shot Z2544 utilizing hardware set A0283A. Several technical and engineering challenges were overcome in the process leading to the attempt to measure the dynamic strength of NNSA Ta at 50 GPa. The MAPS technique relies on the ability to apply an external magnetic field properly aligned and time correlated with the MHD pulse. The load design had to be modified to accommodate the external field coils and additional support was required to manage stresses from the pulsed magnets. Further, this represents the first time transverse velocity interferometry has been applied to diagnose a shot at Z. All subsystems performed well with only minor issues related to the new feed design which can be easily addressed by modifying the current pulse shape. Despite the success of each new component, the experiment failed to measure strength in the samples due to spallation failure, most likely in the diamond anvils. To address this issue, hydrocode simulations are being used to evaluate a modified design using LiF windows to minimize tension in the diamond and prevent spall. Another option to eliminate the diamond material from the experiment is also being investigated.

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2169 steel waveform experiments

Furnish, Michael D.; Alexander, Charles S.; Reinhart, William D.; Brown, Justin L.

In support of LLNL efforts to develop multiscale models of a variety of materials, we have performed a set of eight gas gun impact experiments on 2169 steel (21% Cr, 6% Ni, 9% Mn, balance predominantly Fe). These experiments provided carefully controlled shock, reshock and release velocimetry data, with initial shock stresses ranging from 10 to 50 GPa (particle velocities from 0.25 to 1.05 km/s). Both windowed and free-surface measurements were included in this experiment set to increase the utility of the data set, as were samples ranging in thickness from 1 to 5 mm. Target physical phenomena included the elastic/plastic transition (Hugoniot elastic limit), the Hugoniot, any phase transition phenomena, and the release path (windowed and free-surface). The Hugoniot was found to be nearly linear, with no indications of the Fe phase transition. Releases were non-hysteretic, and relatively consistent between 3- and 5-mmthick samples (the 3 mm samples giving slightly lower wavespeeds on release). Reshock tests with explosively welded impactors produced clean results; those with glue bonds showed transient releases prior to the arrival of the reshock, reducing their usefulness for deriving strength information. The free-surface samples, which were steps on a single piece of steel, showed lower wavespeeds for thin (1 mm) samples than for thicker (2 or 4 mm) samples. A configuration used for the last three shots allows release information to be determined from these free surface samples. The sample strength appears to increase with stress from ~1 GPa to ~ 3 GPa over this range, consistent with other recent work but about 40% above the Steinberg model.

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Dynamic response of a carbon fiber -epoxy composite subject to planar impact

ECCM 2012 - Composites at Venice, Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Composite Materials

Alexander, Charles S.

Unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composite samples were tested to determine the response to one dimensional shock loading. The material tested had high fiber content (68% by volume) and low porosity. Wave speeds for shocks traveling along the carbon fibers are significantly higher than for those traveling transverse to the fibers or through the bulk epoxy. As a result, the dynamic material response is dependent on the relative shock - fiber orientation. Shocks traveling along the fiber direction in uniaxial samples travel faster and exhibit both elastic and plastic characteristics over the stress range tested; up to 15 GPa. Results detail the anisotropic material response which is governed by different mechanisms along each of the two principle directions in the composite.

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Pressure-shear experiments on granular materials

Vogler, Tracy V.; Alexander, Charles S.; Reinhart, William D.

Pressure-shear experiments were performed on granular tungsten carbide and sand using a newly-refurbished slotted barrel gun. The sample is a thin layer of the granular material sandwiched between driver and anvil plates that remain elastic. Because of the obliquity, impact generates both a longitudinal wave, which compresses the sample, and a shear wave that probes the strength of the sample. Laser velocity interferometry is employed to measure the velocity history of the free surface of the anvil. Since the driver and anvil remain elastic, analysis of the results is, in principal, straightforward. Experiments were performed at pressures up to nearly 2 GPa using titanium plates and at higher pressure using zirconium plates. Those done with the titanium plates produced values of shear stress of 0.1-0.2 GPa, with the value increasing with pressure. On the other hand, those experiments conducted with zirconia anvils display results that may be related to slipping at an interface and shear stresses mostly at 0.1 GPa or less. Recovered samples display much greater particle fracture than is observed in planar loading, suggesting that shearing is a very effective mechanism for comminution of the grains.

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Simulation and analysis of Magnetically-Applied Pressure-Shear (MAPS) experiments

Haill, Thomas A.; Alexander, Charles S.

A new experimental technique to measure material shear strength at high pressures has been developed for use on magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) drive pulsed power platforms. The technique is referred to as Magnetically-Applied Pressure-Shear (MAPS). By applying an external static magnetic field to the sample region, the MHD drive directly induces a shear stress wave in addition to the usual longitudinal stress wave. Strength is probed by passing this shear wave through a sample material where the transmissible shear stress is limited to the sample strength. The magnitude of the transmitted shear wave is measured via a transverse velocity interferometry system (VISAR) from which the sample strength is determined. The strength of materials is defined as the ability of a material to sustain deviatoric (shear) stresses. Strength is an important aspect of the response of materials subjected to compression to high pressure. Beyond the elastic response, material strength will govern at what pressure and to what extent a material will plastically deform. The MAPS technique cleverly exploits the property that, for a von Mises yield criterion at a given longitudinal stress, the maximum amplitude shear wave that can be transmitted is limited by the strength at that stress level. Successful fielding of MAPS experiments to measure shear stresses relies upon correct numerical simulation of the experiment. Complex wave interactions among forward and reflected longitudinal and shear waves, as well as the advancing magnetic diffusion front of the MHD drive, can make the design of the experiment complicated. Careful consideration must be given to driver, sample, and anvil materials; to the thicknesses of the driver, sample and anvil layers; as well as to the timing of the interacting waves. This paper will present and analyze the 2D MHD simulations used to design the MAPS experiments. The MAPS experiments are modeled using Sandia's ALEGRA-MHD simulation code. ALEGRA-MHD is an operator-split, multi-physics, multi-material, arbitrary lagrangian-eulerian code developed to model magnetic implosion, ceramic fracture, and electromagnetic launch. We will detail the numerical investigations into MHD shear generation, longitudinal and shear stress coupling, timing of wave interactions, and transmission of shear at material interfaces.

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Magnetically applied pressure-shear : a new technique for direct strength measurement at high pressure (final report for LDRD project 117856)

Alexander, Charles S.; Haill, Thomas A.; Lamppa, Derek C.

A new experimental technique to measure material shear strength at high pressures has been developed for use on magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) drive pulsed power platforms. By applying an external static magnetic field to the sample region, the MHD drive directly induces a shear stress wave in addition to the usual longitudinal stress wave. Strength is probed by passing this shear wave through a sample material where the transmissible shear stress is limited to the sample strength. The magnitude of the transmitted shear wave is measured via a transverse VISAR system from which the sample strength is determined.

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High accuracy Hugoniot measurements at multi-megabar pressure utilizing the Sandia Z accelerator

Journal of Physics: Conference Series

Alexander, Charles S.; Knudson, Marcus D.; Hall, Clint A.

The Hugoniot response of materials is centrally important in the field of high pressure science. Highly accurate Hugoniot measurements not only provide better material references but also allow for the detection of subtle material phenomena. A process has been developed utilizing the Sandia Z accelerator to measure Hugoniot response at multi-megabar pressure resulting in extremely high accuracy data. Key considerations are the use of large surface area flyer plates allowing measurement configurations with multiple targets and diagnostics. This allows for greatly reduced uncertainty in the data. The details of this process are given and each aspect is closely examined focusing on the individual contributions to the overall accuracy of the result. © 2010 IOP Publishing Ltd.

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Index of refraction of shock loaded soda-lime glass

AIP Conference Proceedings

Alexander, Charles S.

Soda-lime glass (SLG) is a potential low-cost VISAR window for use at moderate shock pressures (up to 2430 GPa) where the material remains transparent. In order for SLG to be practical as a VISAR window, the correction factor, which describes the frequency correction related to the strain dependence of the refractive index, and hence the index of refraction itself, must be characterized as a function of pressure. Characterization data are reported in this paper and compared to previous results. The present data show good agreement with those of Dandekar [J. Appl. Phys. 84, 6614 (1998)] and separate study results by Gibbons and Ahrens [J. Geophys. Res. 76, 5489 (1971)] up to 7 GPa. However, at stresses over 7 GPa, marked discrepancies are evident between the present data and that of Gibbons and Ahrens. Differences in test methods may explain these discrepancies. © 2009 American Institute of Physics.

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Expansion into vacuum of a shocked tungsten carbide-epoxy mixture

Vogler, Tracy V.; Reinhart, William D.; Alexander, Charles S.

The behavior of a shocked tungsten carbide / epoxy mixture as it expands into a vacuum has been studied through a combination of experiments and simulations. X-ray radiography of the expanding material as well as the velocity measured for a stood-off witness late are used to understand the physics of the problem. The initial shock causes vaporization of the epoxy matrix, leading to a multi-phase flow situation as the epoxy expands rapidly at around 8 km/s followed by the WC particles moving around 3 km/s. There are also small amounts of WC moving at higher velocities, apparently due to jetting in the sample. These experiments provide important data about the multi-phase flow characteristics of this material.

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Changes to the shock response of fused quartz due to glass modification

International Journal of Impact Engineering

Alexander, Charles S.; Chhabildas, L.C.; Reinhart, William D.; Templeton, D.W.

Silica based glasses are commonly used as window material in applications which are subject to high velocity impacts. Thorough understanding of the response to shock loading in these materials is crucial to the development of new designs. Despite the lack of long range order in amorphous glasses, the structure can be described statistically by the random network model. Changes to the network structure alter the response to shock loading. Results indicate that in fused silica, substitution of boron as a network former does not have a large effect on the shock loading properties while modifying the network with sodium and calcium changes the dynamic response. These initial results suggest the potential of a predictive capability to determine the effects of other network substitutions.

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The Hugoniot elastic limit of soda-lime glass

AIP Conference Proceedings

Alexander, Charles S.; Chhabildas, L.C.; Templeton, D.W.

Soda-lime glass (SLG) is a highly available low cost glass formulation commonly used in window applications. Over the past decade, there have been a number of studies which have examined the Hugoniot elastic limit (HEL) of this material resulting in a wide range of values from 3.1 to 6.0 GPa. The determination of the HEL is complicated by many factors including ramp loading due to the convex downward curvature of the Hugoniot at low pressures. Results of transmitted wave profile experiments up to 20 GPa are presented and analyzed to determine the loading and release characteristics of SLG near the HEL. Results indicate a response that is more complex than the elastic - plastic response typical of many materials, possibly explaining the wide range in initially reported HEL values. © 2007 American Institute of Physics.

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Statistics of the Hugoniot elastic limit from line VISAR

AIP Conference Proceedings

Furnish, Michael D.; Vogler, Tracy V.; Alexander, Charles S.; Reinhart, William D.; Trott, Wayne T.; Chhabildas, Lalit C.

Material heterogeneity appears to give rise to variability in the yield behavior of ceramics and metals under shock loading conditions. The line-imaging VISAR provides a way to measure this variability, which may then be quantified by Weibull statistics or other methods. Weibull methods assign a 2-parameter representation of failure phenomena and variability. We have conducted experiments with tantalum (25 and 40 μm grains) and silicon carbide (SiC-N with 5 μm grains). The tantalum HEL variability did not depend systematically on peak stress, grain size or sample thickness, although the previously observed precursor attenuation was present. SiC-N HEL variability within a single shot was approximately half that of single-point variability in a large family of shots; these results are more consistent with sample-to-sample variation than with variability due to changing shot parameters. © 2007 American Institute of Physics.

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Dynamic response of shock-loaded multi-component glasses

Alexander, Charles S.; Vogler, Tracy V.; Reinhart, William D.; Chhabildas, Lalit C.

Glass, in various formulations, may be useful as a transparent armor material. Fused quartz (SiO{sub 2}), modified with either B{sub 2}O{sub 3} (13 % wt.) or Na{sub 2}O (15 % wt.), was studied to determine the effect on the dynamic response of the material. Utilizing powder and two-stage light gas guns, plate impact experiments were conducted to determine the effect on strength properties, including the elastic limits and plastic deformation response. Further, the effect of glass modification on known transitions to higher density phases in fused quartz was evaluated. Results of these experiments will be presented and discussed.

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96 Results