Caryophyllene, a natural bicyclical sesquiterpene compound, and its alcohol are widely used in citrus flavors, spice blends, soaps, detergents, creams, lotions as well as in various food and beverage products. Recent studies have revealed that beta-caryophyllene exhibits a wide range of biological activities including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-genotoxic capacity, neuroprotection…etc. Besides the biological activities, recent studies suggested blending of hydrogenated sesquiterpanes (carophyllanes, in particular, which have a moderate cetane number and only moderately high viscosity) with synthetic branched paraffins to raise cetane and reduce viscosity. Therefore, caryophyllene and its isomers have been deemed to be among the top three most promising jet fuel compounds with increased energy density. In this study, caryophyllene, caryolan-1-ol, and other terpenes were significantly produced by heterologous expressing a mevalonate pathway with a geranyl pyrophosphate synthase (GPPS), a caryophyllene synthase, and a caryolan-1-ol synthase into an E.coli strain. With the optimization of metabolic flux through four different pathway constructs and fermentation parameters, the engineered strains yielded 448.7mg/L total terpene including 405.9 mg/L sesquiterpene, 42.7 mg/L monoterpene,100 mg/L of caryophyllene, 10 mg/L of caryolan-1-ol. Furthermore, an algal hydrolysate was used by the engineered strain as solo carbon source for the production of caryophyllene and other terpene compounds. Under optimal fermentation conditions, the total terpene, sesquiterpene, and caryophyllene reached 360.3-, 322.5-, and 75.2 mg/L, respectively. The highest yields achieved were 47.9 mg total terpene/ g algae and 10.0 mg caryophyllene/ g algae, respectively, which is about ten times higher than essential oil yield extracted from plant tissue. This study was the first report of caryophyllene production using algae biomass as feedstock. The study provides a sustainable alternative for caryophyllene and its alcohol production as potential candidates for next generation aviation fuels and pharmaceutical applications.
Recent strategies for algae-based biofuels have primarily focused on biodiesel production by exploiting high algal lipid yields under nutrient stress conditions. However, under conditions supporting robust algal biomass accumulation, carbohydrate and proteins typically comprise up to ~80% of the ash-free dry weight of algae biomass. Therefore, comprehensive utilization of algal biomass for production of multipurpose intermediate- to high-value bio-based products will promote scale-up of algae production and processing to commodity volumes. Terpenes are hydrocarbon and hydrocarbon-like (C:O>10:1) compounds with high energy density, and are therefore potentially promising candidates for the next generation of value added bio-based chemicals and “drop-in” replacements for petroleum-based fuels. In this study, we demonstrated the feasibility of bioconversion of proteins into sesquiterpene compounds as well as comprehensive bioconversion of algal carbohydrates and proteins into biofuels. To achieve this, the mevalonate pathway was reconstructed into an E. coli chassis with six different terpene synthases (TSs). Strains containing the various TSs produced a spectrum of sesquiterpene compounds in minimal medium containing amino acids as the sole carbon source. The sesquiterpene production was optimized through three different regulation strategies using chamigrene synthase as an example. The highest total terpene titer reached 166 mg/L, and was achieved by applying a strategy to minimize mevalonate accumulation in vivo. The highest yields of total terpene were produced under reduced IPTG induction levels (0.25 mM), reduced induction temperature (25°C), and elevated substrate concentration (20 g/L amino acid mixture). A synthetic bioconversion consortium consisting of two engineering E. coli strains (DH1-TS and YH40-TS) with reconstructed terpene biosynthetic pathways was designed for comprehensive single-pot conversion of algal carbohydrates and proteins to sesquiterpenes. The consortium yielded the highest total terpene yields (187 mg/L) at an inoculum ratio 2:1 of strain YH40-TS: DH1-TS, corresponding to 31 mg fuel/g algae biomass ash free dry weight. This study therefore demonstrates a feasible process for comprehensive algal biofuel production.
The Seldon terrorist model represents a multi-disciplinary approach to developing organization software for the study of terrorist recruitment and group formation. The need to incorporate aspects of social science added a significant contribution to the vision of the resulting Seldon toolkit. The unique addition of and abstract agent category provided a means for capturing social concepts like cliques, mosque, etc. in a manner that represents their social conceptualization and not simply as a physical or economical institution. This paper provides an overview of the Seldon terrorist model developed to study the formation of cliques, which are used as the major recruitment entity for terrorist organizations.