Publications

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We show scaling results for materials of interest in Sandia Radiation-Effects and High-Energy-Density-Physics Mission Areas. Each timing is from a self-consistent calculation for bulk material. Two timings are given: (1) walltime for the construction of the CR exchange operator (Exchange-Operator) and (2) walltime for everything else (non-Exchange-Operator).

Predicting transient effects caused by short - pulse neutron irradiation of electronic devices is an important part of Sandia's mission. For example , predicting the diffusion of radiation - induced point defects is needed with in Sandia's Qualification Alternative to the Sandia Pulsed Reactor (QASPR) pro gram since defect diffusion mediates transient gain recovery in QASPR electronic devices. Recently, the semiconductors used to fabricate radiation - hard electronic devices have begun to shift from silicon to III - V compounds such as GaAs, InAs , GaP and InP . An advantage of this shift is that it allows engineers to optimize the radiation hardness of electronic devices by using alloy s such as InGaAs and InGaP . However, the computer codes currently being used to simulate transient radiation effects in QASP R devices will need to be modified since they presume that defect properties (charge states, energy levels, and diffusivities) in these alloys do not change with time. This is not realistic since the energy and properties of a defect depend on the types of atoms near it and , therefore, on its location in the alloy. In particular, radiation - induced defects are created at nearly random locations in an alloy and the distribution of their local environments - and thus their energies and properties - evolves with time as the defects diffuse through the alloy . To incorporate these consequential effects into computer codes used to simulate transient radiation effects, we have developed procedures to accurately compute the time dependence of defect energies and properties and then formulate them within compact models that can be employed in these computer codes. In this document, we demonstrate these procedures for the case of the highly mobile P interstitial (I P ) in an InGaP alloy. Further dissemination only as authorized to U.S. Government agencies and their contractors; other requests shall be approved by the originating facility or higher DOE programmatic authority.

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A recently developed bounds-analysis approach has been used to interpret density-functional-theory (DFT) results for the As and Ga antisites in GaAs. The bounds analysis and subsequent processing of DFT results for the As antisite yielded levels - defined as the Fermi levels at which the defect charge state changes - in very good agreement with measurements, including the -1/0 level which is within 0.1 eV of the conduction-band edge. Good agreement was also obtained for the activation energies to transform the AsGa from its metastable state to its stable state. For the Ga antisite, the bounds analysis revealed that the -1 and 0 charge states are hole states weakly bound to a localized -2 charge state. The calculated levels are in good agreement with measurements.

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Carrier recombination due to defects can have a major impact on device performance. The rate of defect-induced carrier recombination is determined by both defect levels and carrier capture cross-sections. Kohn-Sham density functional theory (DFT) has been widely and successfully used to predict defect levels in semiconductors and insulators, but only recently has work begun to focus on using DFT to determine carrier capture cross-sections. Lang and Henry worked out the fundamental theory of carrier-capture cross-sections in the 1970s and showed that, in most cases, room temperature carrier-capture cross-sections differ between defects primarily due to differences in the carrier capture activation energies. Here, we present an approach to using DFT to calculate carrier capture activation energies that does not depend on perturbation theory or an assumed configuration coordinate, and we demonstrate this approach for the -3/-2 level of the Ga vacancy in wurtzite GaN.

Density-functional theory (DFT) was used to study the C2v 110g Ga interstitial in GaAs (see inset).

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The Socorro code has been used to obtain density-functional theory results for the Ga vacancy (V{sub Ga}) and the As vacancy (V{sub As}) in GaAs. Calculations were performed in a nominal 216-atom simulation cell using the local-density approximation for exchange and correlation. The results from these calculations include: (1) the charge states, the atomic configurations of stable and metastable states, (2) energy levels in the gap, and (3) activation energies for migration. Seven charge states were found for the Ga vacancy (-3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3). The stable structures of the -3, -2, -1, and 0 charge states consist of an empty Ga site with four As neighbors displaying T{sub d} symmetry. The stable structures of the +1, +2, and +3 charge states consist of an As antisite next to an As vacancy; AsGa-V{sub As}. Five charge states were found for the As vacancy (-3, -2, -1, 0, +1). The stable structures of the -1, 0, and +1 charge states consist of an empty As site with four Ga neighbors displaying C{sub 2v} symmetry. The stable structures of the -3 and -2 charge states consist of a Ga antisite next to a Ga vacancy; Ga{sub As}-V{sub Ga}. The energy levels of V{sub Ga} lie below mid-gap while the energy levels of As{sub Ga}-V{sub As} lie above and below mid-gap. All but one of the V{sub As} energy levels lie above mid-gap while the As{sub Ga}-V{sub As} energy level lies below mid-gap. The migration activation energies of the defect states were all found to be larger than 1.35 eV.

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Results from recent experimental studies suggest that the N vacancy (V{sub N}) may compensate Mg acceptors in GaN in addition to the compensation arising from H introduced during growth. To investigate this possibility further, density-functional-theory calculations were performed to determine the interactions of V{sub N} with H, Mg, and the MgH center in GaN, and modeling was performed to determine the state populations at elevated temperatures. The results indicate that V{sub N}H and MgV{sub N}H complexes with H inside the vacancy are highly stable in p-type GaN and act to compensate or passivate Mg acceptors. Furthermore, barriers for formation of these complexes were investigated and the results indicate that they can readily form at temperatures > 400 C, which is well below temperatures typically used for GaN growth. Overall, the results indicate that the V{sub N} compensation behavior suggested by experiments arises not from isolated V{sub N}, but rather from V{sub N}H and MgV{sub N}H complexes with H located inside the vacancy.

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A finite temperature version of 'exact-exchange' density functional theory (EXX) has been implemented in Sandia's Socorro code. The method uses the optimized effective potential (OEP) formalism and an efficient gradient-based iterative minimization of the energy. The derivation of the gradient is based on the density matrix, simplifying the extension to finite temperatures. A stand-alone all-electron exact-exchange capability has been developed for testing exact exchange and compatible correlation functionals on small systems. Calculations of eigenvalues for the helium atom, beryllium atom, and the hydrogen molecule are reported, showing excellent agreement with highly converged quantumMonte Carlo calculations. Several approaches to the generation of pseudopotentials for use in EXX calculations have been examined and are discussed. The difficult problem of finding a correlation functional compatible with EXX has been studied and some initial findings are reported.

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We report the implementation of an iterative scheme for calculating the Optimized Effective Potential (OEP). Given an energy functional that depends explicitly on the Kohn-Sham wave functions, and therefore, implicitly on the local effective potential appearing in the Kohn-Sham equations, a gradient-based minimization is used to find the potential that minimizes the energy. Previous work has shown how to find the gradient of such an energy with respect to the effective potential in the zero-temperature limit. We discuss a density-matrix-based derivation of the gradient that generalizes the previous results to the finite temperature regime, and we describe important optimizations used in our implementation. We have applied our OEP approach to the Hartree-Fock energy expression to perform Exact Exchange (EXX) calculations. We report our EXX results for common semiconductors and ordered phases of hydrogen at zero and finite electronic temperatures. We also discuss issues involved in the implementation of forces within the OEP/EXX approach.

GaN-based microwave power amplifiers have been identified as critical components in Sandia's next generation micro-Synthetic-Aperture-Radar (SAR) operating at X-band and Ku-band (10-18 GHz). To miniaturize SAR, GaN-based amplifiers are necessary to replace bulky traveling wave tubes. Specifically, for micro-SAR development, highly reliable GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs), which have delivered a factor of 10 times improvement in power performance compared to GaAs, need to be developed. Despite the great promise of GaN HEMTs, problems associated with nitride materials growth currently limit gain, linearity, power-added-efficiency, reproducibility, and reliability. These material quality issues are primarily due to heteroepitaxial growth of GaN on lattice mismatched substrates. Because SiC provides the best lattice match and thermal conductivity, SiC is currently the substrate of choice for GaN-based microwave amplifiers. Obviously for GaN-based HEMTs to fully realize their tremendous promise, several challenges related to GaN heteroepitaxy on SiC must be solved. For this LDRD, we conducted a concerted effort to resolve materials issues through in-depth research on GaN/AlGaN growth on SiC. Repeatable growth processes were developed which enabled basic studies of these device layers as well as full fabrication of microwave amplifiers. Detailed studies of the GaN and AlGaN growth of SiC were conducted and techniques to measure the structural and electrical properties of the layers were developed. Problems that limit device performance were investigated, including electron traps, dislocations, the quality of semi-insulating GaN, the GaN/AlGaN interface roughness, and surface pinning of the AlGaN gate. Surface charge was reduced by developing silicon nitride passivation. Constant feedback between material properties, physical understanding, and device performance enabled rapid progress which eventually led to the successful fabrication of state of the art HEMT transistors and amplifiers.

We have used density functional theory to investigate diffusion of VN+ in the presence of H+. Optimal migration pathways were determined using the climbing image nudged elastic band and directed dimer methods. Our calculations indicate that the rate-limiting barrier for VN+ migration will be reduced by 0.58 eV by interplay with H+, which will enhance migration by more than an order of magnitude at typical GaN growth temperatures. © 2005 American Institute of Physics.

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This SAND report is the final report on Sandia's Grand Challenge LDRD Project 27328, 'A Revolution in Lighting -- Building the Science and Technology Base for Ultra-Efficient Solid-state Lighting.' This project, which for brevity we refer to as the SSL GCLDRD, is considered one of Sandia's most successful GCLDRDs. As a result, this report reviews not only technical highlights, but also the genesis of the idea for Solid-state Lighting (SSL), the initiation of the SSL GCLDRD, and the goals, scope, success metrics, and evolution of the SSL GCLDRD over the course of its life. One way in which the SSL GCLDRD was different from other GCLDRDs was that it coincided with a larger effort by the SSL community - primarily industrial companies investing in SSL, but also universities, trade organizations, and other Department of Energy (DOE) national laboratories - to support a national initiative in SSL R&D. Sandia was a major player in publicizing the tremendous energy savings potential of SSL, and in helping to develop, unify and support community consensus for such an initiative. Hence, our activities in this area, discussed in Chapter 6, were substantial: white papers; SSL technology workshops and roadmaps; support for the Optoelectronics Industry Development Association (OIDA), DOE and Senator Bingaman's office; extensive public relations and media activities; and a worldwide SSL community website. Many science and technology advances and breakthroughs were also enabled under this GCLDRD, resulting in: 55 publications; 124 presentations; 10 book chapters and reports; 5 U.S. patent applications including 1 already issued; and 14 patent disclosures not yet applied for. Twenty-six invited talks were given, at prestigious venues such as the American Physical Society Meeting, the Materials Research Society Meeting, the AVS International Symposium, and the Electrochemical Society Meeting. This report contains a summary of these science and technology advances and breakthroughs, with Chapters 1-5 devoted to the five technical task areas: 1 Fundamental Materials Physics; 2 111-Nitride Growth Chemistry and Substrate Physics; 3 111-Nitride MOCVD Reactor Design and In-Situ Monitoring; 4 Advanced Light-Emitting Devices; and 5 Phosphors and Encapsulants. Chapter 7 (Appendix A) contains a listing of publications, presentations, and patents. Finally, the SSL GCLDRD resulted in numerous actual and pending follow-on programs for Sandia, including multiple grants from DOE and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and Cooperative Research and Development Agreements (CRADAs) with SSL companies. Many of these follow-on programs arose out of contacts developed through our External Advisory Committee (EAC). In h s and other ways, the EAC played a very important role. Chapter 8 (Appendix B) contains the full (unedited) text of the EAC reviews that were held periodically during the course of the project.

A study was performed on the atomic configurations corresponding to local-energy minima for the neutral MgH complex in wurtzite GaN. The density-functional theory and the generalized-gradient approximation for exchange and correlation were used for the identification. The results showed that the dominant configuration consisted of H at an antibonding site of a N neighbor of the substitutional Mg, and the Mg-N and N-H bonds were nearly aligned.

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A physics-based understanding of material aging mechanisms helps to increase reliability when predicting the lifetime of mechanical and electrical components. This report examines in detail the mechanisms of atmospheric copper sulfidation and evaluates new methods of parallel experimentation for high-throughput corrosion analysis. Often our knowledge of aging mechanisms is limited because coupled chemical reactions and physical processes are involved that depend on complex interactions with the environment and component functionality. Atmospheric corrosion is one of the most complex aging phenomena and it has profound consequences for the nation's economy and safety. Therefore, copper sulfidation was used as a test-case to examine the utility of parallel experimentation. Through the use of parallel and conventional experimentation, we measured: (1) the sulfidation rate as a function of humidity, light, temperature and O{sub 2} concentration; (2) the primary moving species in solid state transport; (3) the diffusivity of Cu vacancies through Cu{sub 2}S; (4) the sulfidation activation energies as a function of relative humidity (RH); (5) the sulfidation induction times at low humidities; and (6) the effect of light on the sulfidation rate. Also, the importance of various sulfidation mechanisms was determined as a function of RH and sulfide thickness. Different models for sulfidation-reactor geometries and the sulfidation reaction process are presented.

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Ion-beam irradiation and ion implantation were used to evaluate the influence of point defects and alloying elements on the sulfidation rate of copper films in atmospheric environments containing H2S. Low-energy ions from an oxygen plasma were used to grow thin metal oxide passivation layers on Cu films that were subsequently irradiated and exposed to sulfidizing environments (50-600 ppb H2S in air with 0.5-85% relative humidity). The type of oxide proved to be important in that a CuO layer essentially prevented sulfidation whereas a Cu2O layer permitted sulfidation. For the native copper oxide (Cu2O), density-functional theory modeling of Cu divacancy binding energies suggested that alloying with In or Al would cause vacancy trapping and possibly slow the rate of sulfidation. This finding was then experimentally verified for an In-implanted Cu film. A series of marker experiments using unalloyed Cu showed that sulfidation proceeds by solid-state transport of Cu from the substrate through the Cu2S product layer. © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V.

The authors have performed first-principles calculations to examine the effects of biaxial strain and chemical ordering on the band gap of wurtzite In{sub x}Ga{sub 1{minus}x}N in the range 0 {le} x {le} 0.5. The results for unstrained, random alloys are in good agreement with theoretical estimates and measurements on unstrained zinc-blende alloys, but are in poor agreement with recent measurements on strained wurtzite alloys which display significantly lower gaps. Biaxial strain is found to have a non-linear effect on calculated alloy gaps, increasing them for x < 0.25 and decreasing them for x > 0.25. However, the overall agreement with measured wurtzite values remains poor. Chemical ordering along the [0001] direction in strained alloys is found to decrease the band gaps considerably, yielding much improved agreement with measurements. They discuss their results with regard to current theories concerning the optical properties of wurtzite InGaN alloys.

The diffusion, uptake, and release of H in p-type GaN are modeled employing state energies from density-function theory and compared with measurements of deuterium uptake and release using nuclear-reaction analysis. Good semiquantitative agreement is found when account is taken of a surface permeation barrier.

Formation energies and vibrational frequencies for H in wurtzite GaN were calculated from density functional theory and used to predict equilibrium state occupancies and solid solubilities for p-type, intrinsic, and n-type material. The solubility of deuterium (D) was measured at 600--800 C as a function of D{sub 2} pressure and doping and compared with theory. Agreement was obtained by reducing the H formation energies 0.2 eV from ab-initio theoretical values. The predicted stretch-mode frequency for H bound to the Mg acceptor lies 5% above an observed infrared absorption attributed to this complex. It is concluded that currently recognized H states and physical processes account for the equilibrium behavior of H examined in this work.

The LDRD entitled ``Role of Defects in III-Nitride Based Devices'' is aimed to place Sandia National Laboratory at the forefront of the field of GaN materials and devices by establishing a scientific foundation in areas such as material growth, defect characterization/modeling, and processing (metalization and etching) chemistry. In this SAND report the authors summarize their studies such as (1) the MOCVD growth and doping of GaN and AlGaN, (2) the characterization and modeling of hydrogen in GaN, including its bonding, diffusion, and activation behaviors, (3) the calculation of energetic of various defects including planar stacking faults, threading dislocations, and point defects in GaN, and (4) dry etching (plasma etching) of GaN (n- and p-types) and AlGaN. The result of the first AlGaN/GaN heterojunction bipolar transistor is also presented.